Philosophical and Sociological Foundations of Human Nature
Cultural Diversity and Tolerance
Cultural diversity encompasses many different cultures, each with its own languages, customs, and myths. When studying different cultures, two extreme views must be avoided: ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism
- Ethnocentrism: Judging other cultures using one’s own cultural criteria. Ethnocentrism can hide racist attitudes, which occurs when cultural differences are equated with biological differences.
- Cultural Relativism: The view that one must accept any practice or custom if it is part of an established tradition.
Tolerance is a fundamental principle when dealing with members of other cultures. However, tolerance has limits that reside in the dignity of human beings.
Social Stratification and Change
Societies are stratified, meaning the roles of individuals are associated with a degree of power. Power is defined as the ability to exercise one’s will and applies significantly to the economy.
Models of Stratification
- Slavery: In the 21st century, there are still people living in slavery.
- Caste System: Peculiar to India, associated with beliefs in reincarnation. In this rigid system, groups cannot establish relationships, and social mobility is virtually impossible.
- Estates: Typical of the Middle Ages. Medieval society was divided into three estates: nobility, clergy, and peasantry. Birth determined membership. Nobility and clergy held privileges, while the peasantry was servile and unprivileged.
- Social Class: The most fluid system, characteristic of capitalist societies. Although birth influences social status, the primary factor determining class membership is economic.
Philosophical Views on the Human Composite
Augustine of Hippo: Body and Soul
According to Augustine of Hippo, human beings are formed by the union of two realities: body and soul. The body is finite and mortal. Augustine understands the body not as a prison of the soul, but as an instrument that the soul can use. The soul is immortal.
Augustine relates human intelligence to the Trinity: human intelligence is the Father; the intelligence that has knowledge of itself is the Son; and the love resulting from this relationship is the Holy Spirit (often symbolized by the dove).
Aristotle’s Hylomorphism
The word Hylomorphism comes from Greek, meaning hyle (matter) and morphe (form). For Aristotle, all material reality is composed of matter and a specific form. Matter cannot exist without form, and form cannot exist without matter. Aristotle argues that a determined form gives meaning and life to raw material. The organizational form structures the order in which the components of matter articulate.
The soul gives life to the body, activating it and starting its functions. Since matter and form are substances that imply each other, the human being is a substantial unity. The soul cannot exist without the body, and the body does not exist without the soul.
Types of Soul
Aristotle distinguishes different types of soul according to the types of life:
- Vegetative soul (plants)
- Sensitive or animal soul (animals)
- Rational soul (humans)
Aristotle argues that the rational soul is specific to man, and its features include reasoning and language. Aristotle opposes Plato’s belief that human nature is realized and fulfilled only in the eternal and incorruptible life of the World of Ideas.
Platonic Dualism and Reminiscence
Man is composed of two realities: body and soul.
- Body: Belongs to the sensible, mortal world. Upon death, the soul is released.
- Soul: A spiritual reality belonging to the immortal World of Ideas. Due to its imperfection, the soul is forced into the body (like a prison). Knowledge is achieved through reminiscence (remembering the Ideas seen before birth).
Anatomy and Genetics of Language
The human capacity to speak lies primarily in the brain. The regions specializing in language use are located in the left hemisphere.
Brain Regions Specialized for Language
- Broca’s Area
- Damage to this area causes individuals to be unable to speak (expressive aphasia).
- Wernicke’s Area
- Related to the ability to comprehend language.
- Arcuate Fasciculus
- Nerve fibers that connect Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.
- Motor Cortex and Hypoglossal Canal
- Related to the precise movement of the tongue muscles and lips necessary for speech.