Philip IV’s Reign: Crisis, Rebellions, and Olivares’ Reforms
The Crisis of 1640: A Turning Point for Spain
In 1640, a confluence of factors led to the fall of Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares (1643), and imperiled the very empire of Philip IV. This period was marked by widespread unrest and challenges to the Crown’s authority.
The Catalan Revolution (1640-1652)
The Catalan Revolution (1640-1652) was a direct consequence of the Unión de Armas (Union of Arms), a policy that aimed to compel all kingdoms to contribute to the formation of a unified army. The Spanish army, primarily Castilian, invaded Catalonia in 1640, leading to significant abuses against the local Catalan population. This sparked a peasant revolt, culminating in the assassination of Viceroy Santa Coloma. These peasant militias became known as the Corpus de Sang (Corpus of Blood) in 1640.
Pau Claris, leading the Generalitat of Catalonia, sought French assistance to rebel against Philip IV. Consequently, Catalonia offered its principality to the King of France, Louis XIII, whose throne was then heavily influenced by Cardinal Richelieu. Catalonia even declared itself a republic and later recognized King Louis XIII as Count of Barcelona. The conflict concluded in 1652 when Philip IV agreed to respect Catalan privileges. The broader clash with France persisted, eventually concluding with the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659. This treaty resulted in Spain ceding parts of Roussillon and Cerdanya, Artois, and several territories in Flanders to France, marking a significant loss of Spanish European hegemony.
Portuguese Rebellion and Independence (1640-1668)
Portugal suffered significantly under Philip IV’s rule. The Dutch, engaged in war with Spain, exploited the situation to seize parts of the Portuguese colonial empire. Furthermore, the Spanish monarchy imposed higher taxes, neglected Portuguese colonies, and attempted to suppress the Portuguese language and identity. This discontent culminated in the Portuguese Restoration War, which ultimately led to Portugal’s independence from the Spanish Crown in 1668.
Other Conflicts and Secession Attempts (1640s)
- Andalusia (1641): An attempted secession led by the Marquis of Ayamonte in Huelva province, aiming to secure the crown for the Duke of Medina Sidonia of Cádiz province.
- Aragon (1646): An attempted secession led by the Duke of Híjar, advocating for Aragon’s independence.
- Navarre (1648): Miguel de Iturbide led an uprising calling for Navarre’s independence but was captured, imprisoned, and executed.
Philip IV’s Domestic Policy and Olivares’ Reforms
Philip IV’s domestic policy was primarily shaped by his chief minister, Gaspar de Guzmán, Count-Duke of Olivares. Olivares pursued a policy of centralization, which met strong resistance, particularly in regions like Catalonia. His aim was to unify the diverse kingdoms of Spain under Castilian laws and institutions.
His comprehensive government program included administrative reforms, a protectionist economic policy aimed at boosting the textile industry (though it ultimately hindered the Spanish economy by restricting free trade), and efforts to promote indigenous industries and homogenize taxation across the realms. Olivares’ reforms aimed to strengthen the political power and economic stability of the Habsburg monarchy. These ambitious plans were outlined in a secret memorandum presented to the king in 1624.
The State Bank Treasury
One key proposal was the creation of a State Bank Treasury, intended to collect private funds to provide loans to the Crown. This initiative aimed to reduce reliance on foreign lenders and prevent the outflow of precious metals. However, it failed because the privileged classes were reluctant to contribute their share of the founding capital. Despite opposition from various parliaments (Cortes), some eventually agreed to new taxes in return for concessions.
Legal and Institutional Unification
Olivares proposed that all kingdoms under Philip IV’s rule should abandon their traditional rights and institutions and adopt those of Castile. However, his proposed method was highly controversial: to pressure these kingdoms with military force, provoke a rebellion, and then, after crushing it, strip them of their privileges as punishment. This project, tragically, became a reality in Catalonia in 1640, but with an outcome far different from what Olivares had anticipated.
The Unión de Armas (Union of Arms)
The Unión de Armas (Union of Arms) was Olivares’ most ambitious project. It aimed to create a large standing army of 140,000 men (44,000 from Castile and the Indies, 10,000 from Aragon, 16,000 from Catalonia and Portugal, and the remainder from other kingdoms). This force was to be divided into seven corps and maintained by tax contributions from all kingdoms of the monarchy, not solely Castile. This initiative sought to establish a formidable military force to maintain Spanish hegemony in Europe and strengthen the bonds of solidarity among the monarchy’s diverse kingdoms. However, the plan ultimately failed due to strong opposition from the Cortes of Aragon, Valencia, and, most notably, Catalonia.