Philip II’s Reign: Spanish Empire’s Zenith and Challenges

Posted on Dec 13, 2024 in History

Successor to Charles I

Philip II, known as the Prudent, succeeded his father, Charles I (1556-1598). Although he did not inherit the title of Emperor, he was the monarch of a vast empire and head of a Crown that was the first power in Europe. He inherited his father’s international policy: the defense of Catholicism and the superiority of the Hispanic empire in Europe. Unlike his father, he was a monarch devoted entirely to the matters of his kingdom. He practically abandoned the peninsula and did not visit his other territories. In 1566, he established a permanent seat for the court in Madrid, the geographic center of the Peninsula. He built the monastery of El Escorial, from where he governed until his death. His enemies differed little from his father’s, but he also added the confrontation with Britain and the constant revolt in Flanders. He incorporated Portugal into the crown in 1580, enforcing his rights as a son of Isabel of Portugal after the death of King Sebastian I without children, thus achieving the peninsular unit, as claimed by the Catholic Monarchs. He was also King of England through his marriage to Mary I between 1550 and 1558. When she died childless, Philip ceased to be King of England (this had been provided for in the marriage). During his rule, the Spanish empire became the first global empire, spanning every continent. He had a dynastic problem and married four times. From his first wife, he had a son, Charles, who had a mental imbalance. He was widowed by his second wife and had no children. With his third wife, he had two daughters. With his fourth wife, he had five children, but only one, Philip (later Philip III), reached adulthood. He was widowed again.

Political Intransigence and Authoritarianism (Domestic Policy)

He was an advocate of the principles of the Council of Trent (counter to the Protestant Reformation):

  • Bishops should have spotless ethical conduct, they could not accumulate benefits, and should reside in their dioceses.
  • Create seminars to ordain priests.
  • Requirement of clerical celibacy.
  • Pope as the supreme authority of the Church.
  • Obligation to preach on Sundays and holidays.
  • Impart catechesis.
  • Validity of the seven sacraments.
  • Need to have faith and do works to gain salvation, unlike Luther, who argued that men are saved by faith and not by the work done.
  • Affirmed the existence of purgatory.
  • Reinstatement of the Inquisition that had arisen in the 13th century, already established in Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella.
  • Censorship of publications contrary to the Catholic faith.

Philip II adopted legislation to prohibit the import of books, prevented study abroad, and forbade foreign teachers in Spain. The Inquisition was very hard during his reign; it was an ecclesiastical court that watched over the purity of Catholicism and persecuted any manifestation of heresy and other crimes against the faith (witchcraft, bigamy, apostasy, …). In 1566, a decree forbade the Moriscos from using their language, religion, and culture. Two years later, they rose in the Alpujarras, but Don John of Austria (his brother) reduced them militarily. Antonio Perez, secretary of Philip II, was accused of plotting against the king. He fled to Aragon, where he was from, and asked for protection from Justice of Aragon Juan de Lanuza. Then he was accused of heresy before the Inquisition, a common court. He managed to escape, but Philip II had Juan Lanuza executed. Philip II wanted to impose greater centralization and a more authoritarian monarchy.

Foreign Policy

1. Anti-Protestant

It was the main problem of the monarchy of Charles V. Martin Luther was a Catholic Augustinian monk of German descent who called for reform of the church in his 95 theses. To alleviate the problem, the Diet of Worms was called, chaired by the emperor. Luther was asked to retract, which he did not do. Soon after, Protestantism was adopted by several princes of Europe. Charles V defeated the Protestants in the battle of Mühlberg but did not end the problem. Peace in Hamburg (1555) allowed Protestants each prince to choose the religion of their states.

2. The Clash with France and England

  • Charles V fought with Francis I of France for control of kingdoms and duchies of Italy. The pope sided with the French king, and Charles V attacked Rome, causing the Pope to change sides.
  • With Philip II in power, the conflict continued until after the victory at San Quentin and the signing of the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559.
  • England was allied with the Spanish crown from the Catholic Monarchs against France.
  • The first marriage of Philip II was to Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII, Queen of England and Catholic, but when she died without heirs, the throne passed to her sister, Queen Elizabeth I (1558).
  • Elizabeth I of England supported the Protestants in Flanders and protected the pirates who attacked Spanish ships, as she wanted control of trade with America.
  • Philip II decided to face England and prepared a large fleet to attack, the Armada, the most important of the time. It consisted of 150 ships.
  • It was a failure mainly due to bad weather at sea, unable to enter British ports.
  • The Spanish ships were superior in size and guns, but because of this, it was difficult to maneuver.
  • Only 40 ships returned to Spain.

3. The Control of the Mediterranean

  • The Ottoman Empire, with Suleiman the Magnificent, was a major power in the Eastern Mediterranean since 1452.
  • They practiced piracy and raided coastal towns for booty and slaves.
  • They wanted to expand into Central Europe and the Western Mediterranean.
  • The Hispanic monarchy, Venice, and the Papacy (Catholic League) joined to fight against them. They set a great squad and fought in the Gulf of Lepanto in 1571, commanded by Don Juan of Austria, brother of Philip II.
  • With 300 ships and 80,000 men, they were victorious.
  • Miguel de Cervantes participated, who was armed.

4. The Revolt of the Netherlands

  • This revolt of Flanders (1566) was the biggest problem of Philip II.
  • They mixed religious issues (the spread of Protestantism), political (the desire to enjoy political autonomy), and economic (tax increases).
  • France and Britain backed Flanders.
  • Philip II sent the troops, commanded by the Duke of Alba, John, ..
  • The war was long and ruthless. Philip II, with all his might, has not broken the Flemish.
  • In 1579 a compromise was reached: the southern provinces, Catholic, remained true to the Hispanic monarchy, the northern, Protestant, became an independent state in the future United Provinces of the Netherlands.
  • Philip II appointed his daughter, Isabel Clara Eugenia, Governor with the right of succession, but having no offspring, the Netherlands reverted to the Spanish Crown in the 17th century, and the conflict reopened.