Philip II’s Foreign Policy and the European Old Regime Era
Philip II’s Foreign Policy and European Dominance
Philip II’s reign was marked by significant foreign policy challenges and triumphs that solidified Spain’s position as a dominant European power.
France
Pope Paul IV allied with France, aiming to expel the Spanish from Naples. However, the decisive Spanish victory at the Battle of Saint-Quentin and the subsequent Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis in 1559 ended this confrontation. This treaty established Spain as the hegemonic and most powerful country in Europe. Spain secured its control over Naples, while France gained certain territories.
Ottoman Empire
When the Ottoman Turks conquered Cyprus, the Pope issued a call to Christian kingdoms. This call was answered by the Papal States, Genoa, Venice, and Spain. Philip II contributed over 200 galleys and 100,000 men, led by Don John of Austria, who decisively defeated the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. This Spanish victory significantly curbed Turkish piracy in the western Mediterranean.
Netherlands
Governor Margaret of Parma refused to accept demands for political and religious freedom, leading to a widespread rebellion. This uprising was secretly encouraged by William, Prince of Orange, an advisor to the governor. Philip II responded by sending the Duke of Alba, who brutally suppressed the rebellion. Alba’s administration established the Council of Troubles, infamously known as the “Council of Blood,” which decreed over a thousand death sentences, imposed heavy fines, ordered exiles, and levied a special tax on trade to cover war expenses. Philip II later replaced the Duke of Alba with Luis de Requesens, a more conciliatory figure, who annulled many of the Council of Blood’s decrees. After Requesens’ death, Don John of Austria signed the Perpetual Edict, which stipulated the withdrawal of the Spanish army and the establishment of self-governing provinces in the Netherlands.
England
During the mid-to-late sixteenth century, England emerged as a formidable naval power, leading to conflicts with Spanish interests. English privateers like Francis Drake and John Hawkins frequently attacked Spanish ships returning from America, laden with gold and silver. This, coupled with British military support for the rebellious Flemish forces, prompted Philip II to declare war on Queen Elizabeth I of England. Philip assembled the mighty Spanish Armada, initially led by Álvaro de Bazán and, after his death, by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, who was inexperienced in naval matters. The plan was to embark troops and munitions in Flanders, cross the English Channel, and land in England. However, the vast fleet could not reach the coast of Flanders due to severe storms and the faster, lighter English ships, which diverted the Spanish fleet northward. This forced the Armada to circumnavigate the British Isles to return to Spain with significantly fewer men and ships, ultimately confirming British naval superiority.
Portugal
The sixty-year union of Portugal with Spain (1580-1640) was Philip II’s most significant diplomatic and political success. The deaths of King Sebastian of Portugal and his great-uncle, Cardinal-King Henry, left Portugal facing a severe succession crisis. Philip II, as the son of a Portuguese princess, was the most legitimate heir. However, many Portuguese opposed the union with Castile and supported the illegitimate claimant, António, Prior of Crato. Philip II sent an army to Lisbon, and in 1581, the Portuguese Cortes, meeting in Tomar, proclaimed Philip II King of Portugal, thus creating an empire “where the sun never set.”
Understanding the Old Regime
The Old Regime refers to the political, social, and economic system that characterized most European countries between the sixteenth and late eighteenth centuries. It was primarily defined by absolute monarchy, a stratified society, and a subsistence agricultural economy coupled with mercantilism.
Absolute Monarchy
In an absolute monarchy, the monarch concentrates all three powers of government: legislative, executive, and judicial. The monarch’s position was considered of divine origin and legitimately inherited by right. In practice, monarchs might use consultative assemblies, which varied in characteristics depending on the country, though the final decision always rested with the monarch.
Consultative Assemblies:
- Estates-General in France
- Diet in Germany
- Cortes in Spain
The Estates-General was a French assembly convened by the monarch, typically in extreme situations. It comprised representatives of the three estates: the nobility, the clergy, and the Third Estate.
Stratified Society
Old Regime society was rigidly stratified into distinct social classes:
Privileged Estates:
- Nobility:
- High Nobility
- Low Nobility
- Clergy:
- High Clergy
- Low Clergy
Underprivileged Estates (Third Estate):
- Bourgeoisie (merchants, bankers, professionals)
- Merchants
- Artisans
- Peasants
- Braceros (day laborers)
- Slaves
Economy: Subsistence Agriculture and Mercantilism
The economy of the Old Regime was largely based on subsistence agriculture. However, states also actively promoted trade in manufactured goods through mercantilism as their dominant economic system. Mercantilism emphasized accumulating wealth, particularly gold and silver, through a positive balance of trade and state intervention in the economy.