Pharmacology Essentials: Drug Classes & Clinical Insights

Antihypertensive Medications

ACE Inhibitors: Lisinopril

  • MOA: Blocks conversion of Angiotensin I to II, leading to vasodilation and decreased blood pressure.

  • Effects: Decreases preload and afterload, prevents cardiac remodeling.

  • Uses: Hypertension (HTN), heart failure, post-myocardial infarction (MI), diabetic nephropathy.

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Black Box Warning: Fetal injury
    Common: Cough, hyperkalemia, angioedema, first-dose hypotension, dizziness.

  • Avoid: Diuretics (increased risk of hypotension), potassium-sparing drugs, lithium.

  • Hint: Medications ending in -pril (e.g., Lisinopril) Lower Pressure + Less Aldosterone = Less Volume.


Beta Blockers: Propranolol

  • MOA: Blocks beta-1 and beta-2 receptors, decreasing heart rate, contractility, and AV node conduction.

  • Uses: Hypertension (HTN), arrhythmias, anxiety.

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Black Box Warning: Do NOT stop suddenly (risk of rebound hypertension).
    Common: Bradycardia, heart block, hypotension, masks hypoglycemia.
    Contraindication: Avoid in asthma/COPD due to bronchospasm risk.

  • Hint: Medications ending in -lol (e.g., Propranolol) Lowers Output & Lowers Nerves.


Calcium Channel Blockers: Nifedipine

  • MOA: Blocks calcium influx into smooth muscle cells, leading to vasodilation.

  • Effects: Decreases blood pressure (primarily acts on vessels, less on the heart).

  • Uses: Hypertension (HTN), angina.

  • Adverse Effects:
    Flushing, dizziness, peripheral edema, headache.
    Important: Avoid grapefruit juice.

  • Hint: Medications ending in -dipine (e.g., Nifedipine) Dilates vessels, Decreasing pressure.


Diuretics

Loop Diuretics: Furosemide

  • MOA: Blocks sodium and chloride reabsorption in the loop of Henle, causing strong diuresis.

  • Uses: Congestive Heart Failure (CHF), pulmonary edema, resistant hypertension (HTN).

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Black Box Warning: Profound diuresis can lead to electrolyte loss.
    Common: Hypokalemia, ototoxicity, dehydration, increased uric acid and glucose.

  • Interactions: Increases digoxin toxicity if potassium levels are low.

Potassium-Sparing Diuretics: Spironolactone

  • MOA: Blocks aldosterone, leading to potassium retention and sodium excretion.

  • Uses: Hypertension (HTN), heart failure (HF), edema.

  • Adverse Effects:
    Hyperkalemia, gynecomastia, menstrual irregularities.
    ⚠️ Important: Due to hormone-like effects, wear gloves when handling crushed tablets.

  • Avoid: Other potassium-increasing medications (e.g., ACE inhibitors, ARBs).



Antianginal Medications: Nitroglycerin

  • MOA: Primarily vasodilates veins, decreasing preload and myocardial oxygen demand. At higher doses, it also dilates arteries, reducing afterload.

  • Uses: Angina (short-acting for acute chest pain, long-acting for prevention).

  • Adverse Effects:
    Expected: Headache, dizziness, hypotension.
    Other: Reflex tachycardia.

  • Avoid: Erectile dysfunction (ED) drugs (PDE5 inhibitors) due to risk of severe hypotension.

  • Routes: Sublingual, transdermal patch, intravenous (IV) – titrate based on blood pressure and chest pain.


Inotropic Agents

PDE Inhibitors: Milrinone

  • MOA: Inhibits phosphodiesterase (PDE), increasing cyclic AMP (cAMP) and intracellular calcium, leading to stronger myocardial contraction. Also causes vasodilation, decreasing preload and afterload.

  • Uses: Acute decompensated heart failure (short-term, ICU only).

  • Adverse Effects:
    Severe arrhythmias, hypotension, chest pain.
    ⚠️ Important: Do not mix with Furosemide (Lasix) IV due to precipitate formation.


Dopamine

  • Low Dose: Acts on dopamine receptors, dilating renal arteries and increasing kidney perfusion.

  • High Dose: Stimulates beta and alpha receptors, increasing heart rate, contractility, and blood pressure.

  • Uses: Shock (cardiogenic or hypovolemic).

  • Adverse Effects:
    Dysrhythmias, hypertension (HTN).
    ⚠️ Black Box Warning: Extravasation can lead to tissue necrosis.
    Antidote for infiltration: Phentolamine subcutaneous (SQ).


Lipid-Lowering Agents: Atorvastatin (Lipitor)

  • MOA: Inhibits HMG-CoA reductase, reducing cholesterol synthesis.

  • Effects: Decreases LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and triglycerides (TGs), increases HDL (high-density lipoprotein), reduces inflammation and plaque formation.

  • Uses: Hyperlipidemia, post-myocardial infarction (MI), cardiovascular (CV) risk prevention.

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Rare but serious: Rhabdomyolysis, hepatotoxicity, memory issues.
    Common: Gastrointestinal (GI) upset, headache.

  • Avoid: Grapefruit juice, CYP3A4 inhibitors.

  • Labs to Monitor: Liver Function Tests (LFTs), Creatine Kinase (CK) for muscle breakdown.


Anticoagulants: Heparin

  • MOA: Activates antithrombin, which then inhibits thrombin and Factor Xa, preventing fibrin clot growth.

  • Uses: Prevention and treatment of Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT), Pulmonary Embolism (PE), and stroke; safe in pregnancy; used during surgery or dialysis.

  • Route: Intravenous (IV) or subcutaneous (SQ) – NEVER intramuscular (IM).

  • Monitoring:
    Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (aPTT) – goal: 1.5–2 times normal.

  • Antidote: Protamine sulfate.

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Bleeding, Heparin-Induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT), spinal hematoma.

  • Dietary Considerations: No major food concerns.

  • Hint: Fast-acting with a short half-life. Requires close monitoring!


Anticoagulants: Warfarin (Coumadin)

  • MOA: Vitamin K antagonist, reducing the production of clotting factors II, VII, IX, and X.

  • Uses: Long-term prevention of clots (e.g., atrial fibrillation, prosthetic heart valves, DVT, PE).

  • Monitoring:
    Prothrombin Time/International Normalized Ratio (PT/INR) – goal: INR 2–3.

  • Antidote: Vitamin K.

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Bleeding, fetal harm (Pregnancy Category X).

  • Dietary Considerations: Maintain consistent intake of vitamin K foods (e.g., green leafy vegetables).

  • Interactions: Numerous drug interactions, including antibiotics, acetaminophen, birth control pills, and herbal supplements.

  • Hint: Slow onset of action (takes days), long half-life.


Direct Oral Anticoagulants (DOACs): Apixaban (Eliquis)

  • MOA: Directly inhibits Factor Xa, thereby blocking thrombin production.

  • Uses: Atrial fibrillation (A-fib), Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT)/Pulmonary Embolism (PE) prevention after surgery.

  • Advantages:
    No routine lab monitoring required.
    Lower risk of bleeding compared to warfarin.
    Fast onset of action.

  • Risks:
    Bleeding, spinal hematoma.

  • Patient Education:
    Avoid grapefruit juice.
    Take at consistent times.
    Do NOT stop abruptly.
    No specific antidote (activated charcoal may be given if recently ingested).

  • Hint: Medications ending in -xaban directly block Factor Xa.


Antiplatelet Agents: Clopidogrel (Plavix)

  • MOA: Blocks ADP receptors on platelets, preventing platelet aggregation.

  • Uses: Prevents stent thrombosis, myocardial infarction (MI), and stroke.

  • Adverse Effects:
    Bleeding, abdominal pain, rash, Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (TTP) (rare but serious).
    ⚠️ Important: Takes up to 10 days to reverse effects; discontinue 5-7 days before surgery.

  • Interactions: Proton Pump Inhibitors (PPIs), Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), statins, other anticoagulants.

  • Antidote: None.

  • Hint: Clopidogrel clops (blocks) platelets, preventing clots.


Thrombolytic Agents: Alteplase (tPA)

  • MOA: Converts plasminogen to plasmin, which then dissolves fibrin clots.

  • Uses: Emergency clot breakdown (e.g., myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, pulmonary embolism, central line clots).

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Major bleeding, especially intracranial hemorrhage.

  • Contraindications: Recent surgery, trauma, active bleeding disorders.

  • Antidote:
    Aminocaproic acid or tranexamic acid.
    For major bleeding, plasma/blood products may be administered.

  • Nursing Considerations: Frequent neurological checks, strict bleeding precautions.

  • Hint: Thrombolytic agents lyse (break down) existing clots, unlike anticoagulants which prevent clot formation.


Erythropoiesis-Stimulating Agents: Epoetin Alfa

  • MOA: Stimulates bone marrow to produce red blood cells (RBCs), mimicking natural erythropoietin.

  • Uses: Anemia associated with Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) or chemotherapy.

  • Adverse Effects:
    ⚠️ Hypertension (HTN), stroke, myocardial infarction (MI), seizures.
    ⚠️ Black Box Warning: Do NOT administer if hemoglobin (Hgb) is >11 g/dL due to increased clot risk.

  • Nursing Considerations: Monitor blood pressure (BP), hemoglobin (Hgb), and hematocrit (Hct).

  • Hint: EPOetin alfa stimulates ErythroPOiesis, providing an RBC boost.


Iron Supplements: Ferrous Sulfate

  • Uses: Iron-deficiency anemia.

  • Adverse Effects:
    Gastrointestinal (GI) upset, constipation, dark stools, teeth staining (with liquid formulations).

  • Patient Education:
    Take with Vitamin C to enhance absorption.
    Avoid dairy products and antacids (decrease absorption).
    Use a straw with liquid forms to prevent teeth staining.
    Increase fiber intake to manage constipation.

  • Antidote (for overdose): Deferoxamine.


Colony-Stimulating Factors: Filgrastim (Neupogen)

  • MOA: Stimulates the production of white blood cells (WBCs), particularly neutrophils.

  • Uses: Prevents infection in chemotherapy patients (due to neutropenia).

  • Adverse Effects:
    Bone pain, splenomegaly, increased WBC count (leukocytosis).

  • Nursing Considerations: Monitor Complete Blood Count (CBC), especially neutrophil count. Educate patients on self-injection techniques.

  • Hint: Fil-GRASTIM Grows Granulocytes (a type of WBC).


Insulin Types

Rapid-Acting Insulin: Aspart (Novolog)

  • Onset: 15 minutes | Peak: 1 hour | Duration: 3–6 hours.

  • Uses: Administer with meals; food must be present.

  • Route: Subcutaneous (SQ) only.

  • Black Box Warning: None.

  • Antidote for Hypoglycemia: Dextrose or Glucagon.


Short-Acting Insulin: Regular (Humulin R)

  • Subcutaneous (SQ) Onset: 30–60 minutes | Peak: 1–5 hours | Duration: 6–10 hours.

  • Intravenous (IV) Onset: 5–15 minutes | Peak: 15–30 minutes.

  • Important: Only insulin that can be administered intravenously (IV).

  • Black Box Warning: None.

  • Antidote for Hypoglycemia: Dextrose or Glucagon.


Long-Acting Insulin: Glargine (Lantus)

  • Onset: 1–2 hours | Peak: None | Duration: 24 hours.

  • Important: Do NOT mix with other insulins.

  • Black Box Warning: None.

  • Antidote for Hypoglycemia: Dextrose or Glucagon.


Oral Antidiabetic Medications

Metformin (Glucophage)

  • MOA: Decreases hepatic glucose production and increases insulin sensitivity.

  • Adverse Effects: Gastrointestinal (GI) upset, lactic acidosis (potentially fatal), Vitamin B12 deficiency.

  • ⚠️ Important: Hold 24–48 hours before contrast media administration, and restart 48 hours after.

  • Black Box Warning: ⚠️ Lactic acidosis.

  • Antidote: Supportive care; dialysis may be required.


Sulfonylureas: Glyburide, Glipizide

  • MOA: Stimulates pancreatic beta cells to release insulin.

  • Adverse Effects: Hypoglycemia, weight gain, disulfiram-like reaction with alcohol consumption.

  • Black Box Warning: None.

  • Antidote for Hypoglycemia: Glucose.


Hypoglycemia Management

  • If Blood Glucose (BG) < 70 mg/dL: Administer 15g of simple carbohydrates (e.g., juice, glucose tablets). Recheck BG in 15 minutes; repeat if necessary. Once stable, provide a carbohydrate and protein snack.

  • For unconscious patients: Administer Glucagon intramuscular (IM) or intravenous (IV) Dextrose.


Antidepressants

SSRIs: Fluoxetine, Sertraline, Escitalopram

  • MOA: Selectively blocks serotonin reuptake.

  • Side Effects: Insomnia, sexual dysfunction, gastrointestinal (GI) upset, weight changes.

  • Black Box Warning: ⚠️ Increased suicide risk (especially in individuals under 25 years old).

  • Antidote: Supportive care; activated charcoal may be used for early ingestion.


Serotonin Syndrome

  • Cause: Excessive serotonin levels (e.g., concurrent use of SSRIs with MAOIs or St. John’s Wort).

  • Signs & Symptoms (HARMED mnemonic):
    Hyperthermia, Agitation, Reflexes (hyperreflexia/clonus), Myoclonus, Encephalopathy, Diaphoresis.

  • Treatment: Discontinue causative medication, benzodiazepines for agitation, cyproheptadine.


TCAs: Amitriptyline

  • MOA: Blocks the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine.

  • Risks:
    Cardiac toxicity (e.g., fatal arrhythmias).
    Anticholinergic effects: dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation.

  • Black Box Warning: ⚠️ Increased suicide risk.

  • Antidote: Activated charcoal; sodium bicarbonate for cardiac effects.


Extrapyramidal Symptoms (EPS)

  • Associated Drugs: First-generation antipsychotics (e.g., Haloperidol).

  • Symptoms:
    Dystonia (muscle spasms), Akathisia (restlessness), Parkinsonism (tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia), Tardive Dyskinesia (involuntary movements, e.g., lip smacking).

  • Treatment: Benztropine; consider switching antipsychotic medication.


Dietary Management & Key Considerations

Diabetes Diet Principles

  • Emphasize: Complex carbohydrates, high fiber, low fat.

  • Limit: Refined sugars and starches.

  • Protein: 15–20% of total intake.

  • Recommendations: Limit alcohol, maintain consistent meal times.

Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) Diet

  • Dietary Approach: DASH diet recommended.

  • Limit: Saturated and trans fats.

  • Cholesterol: Aim for <200 mg/day.

  • Increase: Omega-3 fatty acids, fiber.

  • Reduce: Red meat intake.

  • Sodium: <3g/day for moderate heart failure, <2g/day for severe heart failure.

Malnutrition Indicators & Management

  • Marasmus: Characterized by severe muscle wasting.

  • Kwashiorkor: Characterized by edema and fatty liver.

  • Common Causes: Aging, chronic illness, trauma.

  • Nutrient Replacement: Vitamins C, E, zinc, selenium, copper.

Obesity Management Strategies

  • Obesity Definition: Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥ 30 kg/m².

  • Waist-Hip Ratio: Men >0.95, Women >0.8 (indicators of central obesity).

  • Caloric Reduction: Decrease 500–750 kcal/day for weight loss.

  • FDA-Approved Medications: Consider if BMI ≥30 (without comorbidities) or ≥27 with comorbidities.

  • Bariatric Surgery: Consider if BMI >40 or >35 with comorbidities.

Key Drug-Food Interactions

  • Statins: Avoid grapefruit juice.

  • Warfarin: Maintain consistent Vitamin K intake.

  • Iron Supplements: Enhance absorption with Vitamin C; avoid dairy and antacids.

  • MAOIs: Avoid tyramine-rich foods (e.g., aged cheeses, cured meats).