Peninsular War: Uprising, Resistance, and Liberation from French Rule
The French Invasion and War
Traits of War
The abdication of the Spanish royal family and their replacement by a French monarch enraged the Spanish people. On May 2, 1808, Madrid rose against the occupying French troops. News of the events in Madrid spread, triggering anti-French uprisings throughout Spain. The May 1808 uprisings escalated into a war with a tragic loss of life, resulting in over 300,000 deaths, widespread destruction, and looting. It was a national and popular war, a Spanish war, and simultaneously an international conflict. The struggle against the French fostered a sense of national unity, forging a new Spanish identity that transcended regional differences. The defense of religion and monarchy became the ideological foundation of the resistance. The lower clergy played a crucial role in shaping this ideology, convincing the populace that by supporting the guerrillas or the provisional resistance authorities, they were participating in a crusade. The Church, with its extensive national network, became the driving force behind the uprising.
The Reign of Joseph I
While the clergy mobilized the people against the French, Joseph Bonaparte struggled to gain support beyond a small group of enlightened elites. He attempted to implement reforms planned in Bayonne, aided by French supporters of enlightened reformism (though opposed to revolution). Many Francophiles were officials loyal to the ruling power, while others were enlightened ecclesiastics. Most Francophiles desired reforms in education, law, and religion. However, this minority, deeply unpopular with the population, paid a heavy price for their collaboration, facing vengeance and later exile.
Rise of the Provincial Boards
The abdication of Bayonne created a power vacuum and political fragmentation across Spain. To address this, prominent citizens established provincial boards, assuming sovereignty and authority in the absence of the king. These boards, composed of aristocrats, clergy, military figures, and the bourgeoisie, quickly recognized the need for national unity. Delegates from the provincial boards convened in Aranjuez under the leadership of the Count of Floridablanca, forming the Supreme Central Junta. This Junta assumed all powers and spearheaded the fight against the invaders.
Phases of the War
In June 1808, a French army of 170,000 men entered Spain with the dual objectives of suppressing the uprisings and establishing Joseph I’s regime. Napoleon intended to swiftly control key strategic centers. However, the unexpected resilience of the Spanish disrupted these plans. Cities like Zaragoza and Gerona resisted fiercely, but the invaders suffered a major setback when General Castaños defeated Dupont’s army at Bailén (July 19). This unprecedented defeat on land had a significant international impact. Joseph I was forced to abandon Madrid and Vitoria, retreating with the French troops to the Ebro River.
In November 1808, Napoleon himself entered Spain with an army of 250,000 men. The French advance was overwhelming, and within weeks, Joseph I returned to Madrid. The Central Junta fled, seeking refuge first in Seville and then in Cadiz. After a year of war, only some peripheral and mountainous areas remained free, with Britain now involved in the conflict.
Facing a militarily superior enemy, the Spanish adopted guerrilla warfare. Small groups of former soldiers, volunteers, and even bandits launched surprise attacks against the enemy. Guerrilla groups spontaneously emerged in towns and cities. While the French controlled urban areas, the countryside became the domain of the guerrillas. They targeted small garrisons, supply convoys, and isolated soldiers. The French never effectively countered guerrilla warfare, and their indiscriminate reprisals only increased public support for the resistance.
The war caused extensive damage, and Joseph I’s rule was associated with Napoleon’s style of conquest rather than peace. Failing to achieve the anticipated submission, in 1810, Napoleon created four military governments in northern Spain, separating them from the Madrid government.
In the spring of 1812, the war’s momentum shifted. What initially seemed like an easy victory had become a protracted quagmire, forcing Napoleon to maintain a large troop presence at a time when he needed forces for the Russian front. The withdrawal of troops weakened the French position, culminating in a decisive defeat in July 1812. General Wellington, leading British, Portuguese, and Spanish troops, aided by the guerrillas, defeated the French at Arapiles. They expelled the French from Andalusia and entered Madrid, although a French counteroffensive temporarily reversed the situation. Wellington’s strategy proved effective.
In the spring of 1813, Wellington launched a new offensive. The French retreated to Vitoria, where they suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of San Marcial. Defeated in Russia and Germany, Napoleon reached an agreement with Alfonso VII through the Treaty of Valençay, restoring the Spanish crown.