Path to WWI: Alliances, Crises, and Balkan Tensions
Pre-WWI: European Alliances & Rising Tensions
The Shifting European Alliances
Germany was the first major power to begin practicing a policy of alliances, primarily to isolate France. This led to a complex web of treaties across Europe:
- The League of Three Emperors: Signed between Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, this league was weakened by clashes between Russia and Austria-Hungary over control of the Balkans. Russia, encouraging the independent aspirations of Slavic peoples within the Turkish Empire, supported the uprisings in Serbia and Montenegro. The Balkan crisis ultimately marked a break in this league.
- The Dual Alliance: Signed between Germany and Austria-Hungary, this alliance aimed to oppose French and Russian expansionist policies, particularly in the Balkans.
- The Triple Alliance: This alliance was formed with the addition of Italy, which sought support following the French occupation of Tunisia. The three states committed to a secret pact of mutual aid if any signatory country was attacked by another power.
The Entente Response
France, seeking to break its isolation, spearheaded the formation of counter-alliances:
- The Franco-Russian Entente: This alliance, including secret agreements, resulted from France’s attempt to escape the isolation imposed by the Triple Alliance and Russia’s desire for an ally in its Balkan claims.
- The Entente Cordiale: Signed between Great Britain and France, this agreement marked an end to Britain’s diplomatic isolation.
- The Triple Entente: Comprising Great Britain, France, and Russia, this alliance aimed to resolve rivalries between the signatory powers and became a counterpart to the Triple Alliance.
Colonial Disputes and Regional Conflicts
The Moroccan Crises and Colonial Compromises
In 1904, an agreement was reached between Spain and France regarding the division of Morocco. Germany did not accept this agreement, leading to tensions. Eventually, a colonial compromise was signed between France and Germany, ceding some areas in the Congo to Germany in exchange for French influence in Morocco.
Balkan Wars and Rising Nationalism
Austria-Hungary and Russia were confronted by the issue of dominance in the Balkans. For Russia, control over the Balkans meant potential access to a warm-water port. Austria-Hungary, meanwhile, feared that Russian intervention in the area would encourage Slavic nationalism, leading to claims on territories belonging to the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This tense context led to the Balkan Wars:
- First Balkan War (1912): Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro formed the Balkan League and declared war on Turkey. Austria favored Albania’s independence as a new buffer state to prevent Serbian access to the Adriatic Sea.
- Second Balkan War (1913): A subsequent confrontation occurred between Serbia and Bulgaria over Macedonia. Bulgaria was defeated by a coalition of its neighboring countries.
The consequences of the Balkan Wars only reinforced the pre-war climate: Austria’s influence in the Balkans, increasingly dominated by Serbia, waned. Germany had supported Turkey in these wars. Slavic nationalism intensified following Serbian successes.
The Spark: Assassination in Sarajevo
The Austro-Hungarian Empire, supported by Germany, believed it necessary to neutralize Serbia to prevent a surge in nationalist movements. The pretext arrived in early 1914 when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, was assassinated in Sarajevo. This attack marked the beginning of the war.