Paris Peace Conference: Redrawing Europe After World War I
Peace Treaties and the New Map of Europe
The Paris Peace Conference (1918)
In January 1918, President Wilson outlined his Fourteen Points at the conference, aiming for a fair peace:
- The suppression of secret diplomacy.
- Freedom of navigation and international trade.
- The reduction of armaments.
- Recognition of the right to independence of ethnic and linguistic minorities within the former empires.
- The creation of a League of Nations to ensure the security and territorial integrity of states, preventing future wars.
However, these principles were not fully respected by the European allies, particularly France, who sought the dismemberment of Germany. The Paris Conference resulted in five treaties outlining peace conditions and new borders. The defeated nations were not invited to participate; they were only summoned to sign treaties imposed by the Council of Four.
A Peace Imposed by the Victors
Of all the treaties signed in Paris, the Treaty of Versailles with Germany was the most significant due to its severity. Germany suffered territorial losses, ceding Alsace-Lorraine to France, Posen and part of Poland, including the “Danzig Corridor” which isolated East Prussia. All German colonies became mandates of the League of Nations.
Most critically, Germany was held responsible for the war and ordered to pay substantial war reparations to the victors. It was also forced to give France its mines in the Saarland, surrender its merchant fleet and locomotives to the Allies, and eliminate conscription, limiting its army to 100,000 men. The Allies occupied the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years, with withdrawal linked to the payment of war reparations.
Treaties Signed: The Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, the Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey, and the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria.
The March Toward War: The Crisis of July 1914
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia. The assassination was planned by the secret society “Black Hand,” supported by the Serbian police, who provided weapons and transport. The Bosnian Serb nationalist student Gavrilo Princip carried out the assassination, although other attempts were made the same day by other assassins who failed.
On July 23, the Austrian government, backed by Germany, issued an ultimatum to Serbia demanding an investigation into the bombing. Serbia accepted all but one condition. England attempted to mediate the conflict, but on July 28, Austria declared war on Serbia, and Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia. Germany, after violating the neutrality of Belgium, prompted England to declare war on the Central Powers. Italy, meanwhile, betrayed its allies and remained neutral.
Features of the War
World War I was the first war to utilize all human, economic, and engineering resources of the belligerents. Approximately 70 million soldiers were mobilized and equipped with technical advances and lethal modern weaponry.
A war economy, led by the U.S., was implemented to produce weapons and munitions, while the civilian population suffered rationing and hardships. Women replaced men in factories. To finance the war, states resorted to issuing public debt and foreign borrowing, particularly from the United States. The massive use of propaganda was employed to maintain patriotism and resilience among soldiers and civilians.