Ortega y Gasset: Philosophy and Historical Context
Philosophical Context
Initially, Ortega’s philosophical context in Germany drew its power from Neo-Kantian science. However, he soon abandoned this model, viewing it as part of the idealism contributing to the crisis of modernity. For Ortega, overcoming idealism (which he termed “the issue of our time”) was not merely a philosophical question, but the solution to the problems facing Spain and Europe. He argued that if the principle of rationality, which defined the modern age, were surpassed by another fundamental idea—vital reason—a new era would emerge.
The vitalism of Nietzsche and Husserl’s phenomenology were decisive in shaping Ortega’s proposal to overcome idealism. He would adopt the perspectival conception of truth and defend the values of life, while always avoiding irrationalism and relativism. Thus, Ortega’s raciovitalism stood in contrast to Nietzschean vitalism. From Husserl, Ortega inherited the concern to establish philosophy on a firm foundation, discovered through autonomous reflection. However, for Ortega, the ultimate reality was life itself, not merely consciousness as in Husserl’s phenomenology.
The existentialism of Heidegger and Sartre, whom Ortega framed within his own ‘Generation of 1914,’ further defined his immediate philosophical context. Thanks to their shared engagement with phenomenology, these three authors exhibited a clear affinity. Ortega’s description of the categories of life closely parallels Heidegger’s analysis of human existence. Ortega shared with Sartre the idea that humanity has no fixed nature, as, according to Ortega, life is a “chore” or task. They also agreed that humanity is “thrown” into existence and must continually decide how to live. However, Ortega distanced himself from the nihilism and angst often associated with existentialism.
Finally, Dilthey’s historicism was instrumental in shaping Ortega’s concept of vital and historical reason: the human being is incomprehensible outside of their life and history. Dilthey also reflected Ortega’s view of life as the fundamental reality, an element from which one must begin to “understand” humanity, rather than “explain” it through the methods of the natural sciences.
Cultural-Historical Context
In 1875, a coup led by General Martínez Campos proclaimed Alfonso XII King of Spain, initiating the Bourbon Restoration. Under this new system, which replaced the First Republic, the Conservative and Liberal parties alternated in power through a system of caciquismo (political bossism) and electoral fraud. After the death of Alfonso XII and the Regency of María Cristina, the reign of Alfonso XIII (from 1902) continued to separate the political system from society, preventing the participation of other forces such as:
- Socialists
- Trade unionists
- Anarchists
- Republicans
- Regionalists
A key symptom of this crisis was the ‘Disaster of 1898’: the liquidation of the Spanish empire plunged society into pessimism. The socioeconomic situation in the early 20th century also highlighted political ineffectiveness:
- Life expectancy was only 34 years.
- Infant mortality was extremely high.
- Illiteracy was widespread.
Small industry was concentrated in the Basque Country and Catalonia, while 70% of the population lived in miserable rural conditions. The only perceived way out was emigration.
The Great War (1914-1918) traumatized Europe. Although Spain remained neutral, the conflict initially benefited some Spanish companies due to increased European demand for products, but it ultimately hurt farmers and laborers. This led to increased social unrest, including general strikes and anarchist pistolerismo (gun violence). This socio-political tension, exacerbated by the Annual Disaster of 1921, fueled distrust of traditional parties and paved the way for totalitarianism. Ortega reflected on this fear in ‘The Issue of Our Time,’ keenly aware of the consequences of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the rise of fascism in the Italian government (1922).
In Spain, the coup of Primo de Rivera (1923) initiated a dictatorship lasting nearly eight years, which Ortega would oppose. However, this period of socio-political crisis coincided with the Silver Age of Spanish culture, a wealth comparable only to the Golden Age, featuring figures such as:
- Painting: Picasso, Sorolla
- Architecture: Gaudí
- Music: Albéniz, Falla
- Thought: Eugenio D’Ors, Pérez de Ayala, Ortega
- Science: Ramón y Cajal
Ortega continued the movements aimed at addressing these “evils of the homeland,” such as the regenerationism of Joaquín Costa, the pedagogical renewal of Giner de los Ríos, and the Generation of ’98. He argued that to solve Spain’s ills, the nation needed to develop its scientific capacity and “competence.”