Origins of World War I: Imperialism, Nationalism, and Global Rivalries

Posted on Jun 11, 2025 in History

Imperialism and Pre-War Tensions

The Moroccan Crises

The Berlin Conference of 1885 had attempted to establish measures and arbitration agreements between the empires, but as new countries emerged, conflict erupted again. Hostilities between rival imperialists were particularly evident in North Africa, specifically the area of Morocco. The First Moroccan Crisis occurred in 1905. The German government offered its support to the Sultan of Morocco, hoping he could withstand French pressure. To resolve the conflict, the Conference of Algeciras convened, frustrating German aspirations. Germany, in 1911, instigated a Second Moroccan Crisis, ultimately gaining the expansion of its colony of Cameroon in exchange for leaving Morocco.

Nationalism and Balkan Conflicts

Rising Tensions in the Balkans

The Austro-Hungarian Empire was opposed to unifying all Southern Slavs, as it would mean losing significant territories of its empire. Meanwhile, the Russian Empire increasingly aspired to becoming an international protector of the Slavs. Three crises erupted in the Balkans. The first source of tension began in 1908 when Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, which was a key origin of the Balkan Wars:

  • The First Balkan War, in 1912, saw the Russian Empire support the creation of a Balkan League to attack Turkey, forcing Turkey to leave its last European territories.
  • In 1913, a Second Balkan War confronted the Serbs and Bulgars. The Peace of Bucharest confirmed Bulgaria as the big loser, with Serbia emerging as the main beneficiary in the area.

Driving Forces Behind Imperialism

  • Economic Factors: European nations needed to dispose of their industrial products and capital, and for this, they needed to protect their colonial markets from competition.
  • Political Factors: Some achievements had no direct economic value but were pursued for strategic reasons or to enhance the prestige of other powers, often following the conviction of European civilizational superiority.
  • Social Factors: Population growth in Europe and its surplus population were the largest in its history. Emigration was an outlet favored by governments and served as an excuse to control the territories where settlers arrived.
  • Other Factors:
    • An adventurous spirit and the development of natural science promoted the figure of the geographic explorer in unfamiliar areas.
    • Improving communications enabled the realization of travel and a flow of goods and people.
    • State protection for discoveries and commercial enterprises, backed by public opinion for imperialism.

Early Stages of World War I

Phase 1: The Western Front and Marne

The war was initiated in August 1914. Germany and Austria-Hungary enjoyed significant advantages: powerful armies and easy communication against their territorially dispersed enemies. However, the need to maintain war on two fronts required them to obtain a quick victory. The German plan foresaw a quick strike against France. At first, the French tried to attack Germany but retreated defeated within a few days. From September 6 to 13, the French armies, reorganized, managed to stop the advance of the Germans in the Battle of the Marne.

Phase 2: Trench Warfare and Eastern Front

The result of these battles was very important: German strategy had failed. The French managed to stabilize their defensive positions, and the front was immobilized from the Swiss border to the North Sea. Trench warfare was long and hard and eventually became the symbol of the First World War. In the West, the conflict reached its peak in 1916 with the Battle of Verdun, launched by the Germans in order to break the Allied front. On the Eastern Front, the Russian offensive surprised the Germans, but they quickly blocked it. A new Austro-German offensive in the summer reconquered the territories of Galicia.

The Scramble for Africa

Colonial Ambitions and Divisions

There were two main projects for dividing Africa:

  1. British Project: To occupy all territories between Cairo and Cape Town (a north-south line).
  2. French Project: To control all territories in the northwest and northeast, converging at a point where a possible war could have erupted (the French eventually withdrew).

The European powers divided up Africa after the Berlin Conference. Exports and effective internal control (often held over major rivers) led to imperialist clashes between countries.

Key British Colonial Possessions

United Kingdom: Gibraltar, Malta, India, Hong Kong, Egypt, Sudan.