Organizational Change Models, Resistance and Effective Methods

Posted on Feb 26, 2026 in Business Administration and Management (BAM)

1. Technological Approach to Management of Change

It is based on the machine metaphor. It values technical skills, structures, and planning. Change is seen as a process that can be 100% planned and controlled. Mistakes are considered planning failures that can be avoided with better hard competencies (coordination, organizing).

2. Social and Interpersonal Approach to Management of Change

This approach rejects the machine metaphor and focuses on the human dimension. It values communication, emotional intelligence, and group dynamics. Change is unpredictable and cannot be fully controlled due to human interactions. Mistakes often result from interpersonal conflicts.

3. Edgar Schein’s Model of Organizational Culture

Schein describes culture as three levels:

  • Basic assumptions (unconscious)
  • Values (stated beliefs and norms)
  • Artifacts (visible structures, processes, and symbols)

Change is an educational and learning process; it cannot be fully planned because it involves transforming deep-seated beliefs.

4. “Zeus” Type of Organizational Culture and Change

The “Zeus” type is a club or power culture. Control emanates from a strong central leader. Change only occurs if the leader (“Zeus”) decides to change or if the leader is replaced.

5. Kurt Lewin’s Change Model

Lewin’s model consists of three phases:

  • Unfreeze: Creating the need for change and reducing resistance.
  • Change: Transition phase and implementation of new ways.
  • Refreeze: Stabilizing the change and making it part of the culture.

6. R. Dorczak’s Organizational Change Model

This model is cyclical and includes the following phases:

  1. Pre-phase (dissatisfaction)
  2. Critical phase (real need)
  3. Design phase (diagnosis and plan)
  4. Implementation phase (action)
  5. Reflection phase (evaluation)

7. Levels of Resistance (Oldroyd)

Oldroyd identifies three main levels where resistance to organizational change manifests:

  • Technical level: Occurs when employees feel they lack the technical skills or knowledge required to adapt to new requirements.
  • Personal / Psychological level: Focuses on the individual’s emotional reactions, such as fear, anxiety, feelings of incompetence, or concern about personal impact.
  • Organizational / Cultural level: Arises when the change conflicts with established norms, values, culture, or existing power structures and privileges.

8. Sources of Resistance (Kanter)

Kanter identifies multiple sources of resistance to organizational change:

  • Unclear aims of organizational change: Lack of clarity about why the change is happening.
  • Unclear expectations: Uncertainty about what is expected from employees.
  • Protective attitudes: Protection of power and influence.
  • Fear and anxiety: Emotional reactions to uncertainty.
  • Awareness of negative aspects: Recognizing that the change may have unfavorable consequences.
  • Lack of control: Feeling of having no influence over the process or outcome.
  • Negative attitude toward additional effort: Resistance to the extra workload required for implementation.
  • Negative experience from the past: Mistrust based on previously failed change attempts.

9. Kotter’s Methods for Dealing with Resistance

Methods for dealing with resistance include:

  • Explanation and information: Communicate reasons and details to reduce uncertainty.
  • Inclusion and involvement: Engage employees in the change process to increase commitment.
  • Support and improved conditions: Provide resources and emotional or technical help to adapt to new tasks.
  • Negotiation and agreements: Reach compromises with active opponents.
  • Manipulation and psychological influence: Use influence tactics to gain acceptance (use cautiously and ethically).

10. Comparing Imposing and Involving Styles

Imposing is fast and effective in crises but generates high resistance. Involving is slower and requires consensus, but reduces resistance and creates lasting commitment.

11. R. Dorczak’s Strategies of Organizational Change

Dorczak defines five strategies:

  • Normative: Change through values and norms.
  • Psychological: Addressing emotions and attitudes.
  • Educational: Training and development.
  • Economic: Incentives and financial mechanisms.
  • Authoritarian: Using power or force.

12. Divergent vs Convergent Thinking

Divergent thinking seeks to create multiple ideas and options (fluency). Convergent thinking analyzes and selects the best logical option for execution.

13. Brainstorming as a Method

Brainstorming is a method consisting of two successive and necessary phases:

Creative (Divergent) Phase

Aimed at generating as many ideas as possible. Rules include:

  • Don’t criticize.
  • Be open.
  • Use all potentials.
  • Use metaphors.
  • Involve all people, skills, and associations.

Critical (Convergent) Phase

Aimed at evaluating and selecting the best options. Rules include:

  • Look for connections.
  • Make solutions realistic.
  • Consider context.
  • Calculate costs and resources.
  • Involve all relevant people and skills.

14. Creative Problem Solving (Treffinger)

Treffinger’s method is a structured process that balances creativity and analysis. Main phases:

  • Diagnosis (understanding the problem): Identify the challenge and gather relevant data.
  • Idea identification: Generate a wide range of potential solutions.
  • Action planning: Develop a specific plan to implement the chosen solution.
  • Evaluation: Analyze results and make adjustments.

Key rule: In each stage apply divergent thinking first (generate many options without judging), then convergent thinking (evaluate, filter, and select the best options).

15. Aspects of Readiness Assessment

Readiness assessment determines if the organization is prepared to start the change. Focus areas include:

  • The change: Its scope, type, and magnitude.
  • Leadership and culture: Whether management styles and values support the transition.
  • Organizational capacity: Resources and previous change experience.
  • Employee readiness: Use the ADKAR model — Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, Reinforcement.
  • Manager predisposition: Attitudes of middle management.
  • Communication: Whether it is transparent, multi-channel, and two-way.

16. Areas of Impact Assessment

Impact assessment analyzes the consequences of change across five key areas:

  • Material resources: Money, equipment, space, and other physical resources.
  • People: Impact on workload, knowledge, skills, and competency development.
  • Structures and processes: Changes in internal organization and workflows.
  • Environment (cooperative and competitive): Effects on partnerships and competitive positioning.
  • Local community: Social impact and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) issues.