Organizational Change Models and Resistance: Schein, Lewin, Kotter
1. Technological Approach to Change
The technological paradigm views organizational change as a structured, mechanical process:
- Change can be 100% planned and controlled by management.
- Change is treated as a technological process.
- Change requires hard competencies: the success of the change depends on the technical skills of the implementers rather than on emotional intelligence.
- Mistakes result from bad planning or incorrect implementation.
- We can avoid mistakes.
2. Social and Interpersonal Approach to Change
The social paradigm focuses on the human element and the relationships within the organization:
- Change cannot be 100% planned or controlled (people do not always react the same way to the same input).
- Change is unpredictable due to interpersonal dynamics and processes.
- Change can be partly controlled through soft skills: you can guide change by talking, listening, and building trust.
- Mistakes are the result of interpersonal problems and conflicts.
- Mistakes can be reduced by managing social processes.
3. Edgar Schein’s Organizational Culture Model
Edgar Schein defines organizational culture as a pattern of shared basic assumptions learned by a group. He uses the iceberg metaphor to explain that most of culture is hidden. The three levels are:
- Artifacts: The visible level. Includes physical environment, dress code, and rituals.
- Organizational Values: The intermediate level. Includes strategies, goals, and philosophies (what the organization says it does).
- Basic Assumptions: The deepest, invisible level. Unconscious beliefs and collective mental models that dictate how people actually think and act.
Organizational Change: Change is difficult because it requires addressing the basic assumptions. Change happens when there is a shift in the way people perceive, think, and feel about problems.
4. Zeus (Club) Organizational Culture and Change
Zeus (Club Culture) Characteristics:
- Source of Authority: Power comes from the personality and charisma of the leader (authority of power).
- Centralized Structure: Centralized, often described as a “spider web” with the leader at the center.
- Decision Making: Fast, intuitive, and driven by the leader rather than by formal processes.
- Work Style: High value on individual work and responsibility.
- Classical Leadership: A top-down “command and control” style where one central person makes all decisions.
- Personality of the Leader: A system where authority depends on the leader’s individual character instead of formal rules.
How Zeus Culture Changes
Change happens only when the leader changes. Because the leader is the center of the web, the organization shifts only if the leader’s vision or personality shifts.
5. Kurt Lewin’s Model of Change
Kurt Lewin’s model consists of three specific phases:
- Unfreeze: Determine what needs to be changed. Ensure strong support from upper management and create the actual need for change. Manage and understand the doubts and concerns of all stakeholders.
- Change: Transition occurs. People begin to learn new behaviors and ways of thinking. Leaders should dispel rumors by being open and explanatory, empower action, and directly involve people in the process.
- Refreeze: Stabilize the organization after the change. The new patterns are “frozen” into the culture to ensure people don’t revert to old habits, often through rewards and formalizing new rules.
6. R. Dorczak’s Model of Organizational Change
Pre-change phase – The need for change is not visible yet; existing ways of working encounter problems, dissatisfaction, etc.
Critical phase – The need for change becomes visible and change appears necessary.
Designing phase – Diagnosis, creative thinking, negotiation of needs and actions to be taken, construction/design of action.
Implementation phase – Planned actions are implemented; learning occurs on different levels.
Reflection phase – Evaluation of change and activities supporting incorporation of change into organizational culture.
7. Oldroyd’s Levels of Resistance
These levels describe the different areas in which resistance can manifest:
Technical level: Resistance due to practical issues, such as lack of skills, inadequate resources, or technical difficulties with a new system or process.
Personal/Psychological level: Resistance stemming from individual attitudes, beliefs, fears, habits, or concerns about job security or a loss of control.
Organizational/Cultural level: Resistance rooted in the existing culture, power structures, values, or established norms within an organization that conflict with the proposed change.
8. Sources of Resistance (Kanter)
- Unclear aims of organizational change: A lack of clarity regarding the purpose and goals of the change initiative.
- Unclear expectations toward people: Employees are resistant when they do not understand what is expected of them in the new structure.
- Protective attitudes: Individuals may resist change to protect their current status, authority, or influence within the organization.
- Fear and anxiety: The psychological stress and emotional response to the uncertainty that change brings.
- Awareness of negative aspects of a change: When employees perceive that the change will have detrimental effects on them or the organization.
- Lack of control: Resistance arises when people feel the change is being imposed on them and they have no say in the process.
- Negative attitude toward additional effort: Change often requires extra time and learning; resistance occurs when this is viewed as an unwanted burden.
- Negative experience from the past: Previous failed or poorly managed change efforts create skepticism and resistance toward new initiatives.
9. Methods for Dealing with Resistance (Kotter)
Resistance must be identified, understood, and overcome using the following methods:
- Explanation and information: Used when there is a lack of information; involves explaining the logic and need for change.
- Inclusion and involvement: Making employees part of the design process.
- Support and improved conditions for new work: Providing training and emotional support to those struggling with the transition.
- Negotiations and agreements with opponents: Offering incentives to powerful stakeholders who might lose out from the change.
- Manipulation and psychological influence: Using influence or giving a key resistor a symbolic role in the change process.