Nineteenth Century History: Liberalism, Imperialism, and Spain’s Evolution

Posted on Jul 20, 2025 in History

19th Century European Political Systems and Imperialism

Liberalism

A political system that emerged in 19th-century Europe, originating notably in England and France. Key characteristics included:

  • Universal male suffrage (though often limited initially).
  • Freedom of religion and expression.

Prominent political parties of the era included Liberal, Conservative, and Labor parties.

Context: The women’s suffrage movement, particularly active around 1933, advocated for women’s right to vote.

Glossary: Rigging: Corruption in political processes.

Authoritarianism

A 19th-century political system prevalent in regions such as Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Russian Empire.

Authoritarianism in Russia

In Russia, autocracy was closely associated with serfdom. Key symbols of power included the Tsar, the throne, and the Church altar.

Authoritarianism in Germany

From 1870, the late 19th century in Germany saw the unification of agriculture and industry under the Second Reich. Notable leaders included William I, William II, and Chancellor Bismarck.

Authoritarianism in Austria-Hungary

The Austro-Hungarian Empire, under Emperor Franz Joseph, was significantly influenced by the Catholic Church, which held great power. It functioned as a dual monarchy with administrative centers in Vienna and Budapest.

Imperialism

The conquest of territories in Africa, Asia, and Oceania by European countries during the 19th century.

Chronology of Imperialism

This era spanned from the European unifications of 1870 to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.

Conquered territories became colonies, often administered by the conquering European nations (e.g., France, England).

Causes of Imperialism

  • Economic: Search for new markets, capital investment opportunities, and exploitation of raw materials.
  • Political: Strategic reasons, national prestige, and pride.
  • Demographic: European emigration to the colonies.
  • Ideological: Fueled by racism, the belief in the superiority of “white man’s civilization” over “inferior races,” and the perceived mission to “civilize” indigenous peoples, often imposing European religion.

Geographical societies played a role, as explorers and pioneers began arriving in the colonies.

Major Colonial Powers and Their Territories

  • British Empire: Canada, South Africa, Egypt, India, Australia, New Zealand.
  • French Empire: Indochina, Madagascar, West Africa.
  • Italian Empire: Libya, Somalia, Eritrea.
  • German Empire: Cameroon, Togo, German East Africa (Tanzania).
  • Russian Empire: Finland, parts of Central Asia (e.g., Afghanistan border regions).
  • Spanish Empire: Western Sahara, Morocco, Fernando Po, Equatorial Guinea.

Spanish History in the 19th Century

The Constitution of Cadiz (1812)

The first liberal Spanish constitution, significantly influenced by the French Constitution of 1789 and the U.S. Constitution of 1787. Key features included:

  • Division of powers: judicial, legislative, and executive.
  • Universal male suffrage.

The War of Independence (1808-1814)

This period of transition was sparked by Napoleon’s attempt to invade Portugal and, en route, certain Spanish cities. Key events included:

  • The uprising of May 2, 1808.
  • Important sieges, such as those of Zaragoza and Girona.
  • Widespread guerrilla warfare against the French occupation.

The conflict ultimately led to the return of Ferdinand VII to the throne, formalized by the Treaty of Valençay in 1813.

The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833)

This reign was marked by significant political shifts:

  • Absolutist Sexennium (1814-1820): Suppression of the liberal constitution.
  • Liberal Triennium (1820-1823): Began with the “Pronunciamiento of 1820,” which forced Ferdinand VII to swear allegiance to the Constitution.
  • Restoration of Absolutism (1823): Ended with the intervention of the “Hundred Thousand Sons of Saint Louis.”

A succession crisis emerged between the Isabelinos (Liberals) and the Carlists (Absolutists), with the Isabelinos ultimately prevailing. A notable event was the Cincomarzada (March 5, 1838), where Zaragoza resisted a Carlist attack.

The Reign of Isabel II (1833-1868)

Following the death of Ferdinand VII, this period lasted until the “Glorious Revolution” of 1868. It included:

  1. The Regency of Maria Christina (1833-1840).
  2. The Regency of Espartero (1840-1843).
  3. The majority of Isabel II (1843-1868).

The Carlist Wars were civil conflicts between the Isabelinos (supported by the bourgeoisie) and the Carlists (supported by the nobility and church).

This period also saw the Desamortización de Mendizábal (Ecclesiastical Confiscations of Mendizábal) in 1836.

Key Political Parties under Isabel II

  • Moderates: Led by Narváez, this conservative party advocated for very limited census suffrage, defended the Catholic Church, and supported a confessional state without religious freedom.
  • Progressives: Led by Espartero, these were center-left parties supporting broader census suffrage, religious freedom, and a non-confessional state.

The Democratic Sexennium (1868-1874)

This period began with an interim government (1868-1870) and saw the promulgation of the first democratic constitution in 1869.

From 1870-1873, Amadeo I reigned but abdicated. This led to the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic in 1873, which lasted only 11 months and saw four presidents: Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi y Margall, Nicolás Salmerón, and Emilio Castelar.

Cantonalism: An independence movement advocating for the autonomy of various regions and cities within Spain.

Key Dates in 19th Century History

  • 1808: Mutiny of Aranjuez, May 2nd Uprising, Battle of Bailén.
  • 1808-1809: Sieges of Zaragoza.
  • 1808-1814: Spanish War of Independence.
  • March 19, 1812: Constitution of Cadiz.
  • 1833-1840: Regency of Maria Christina.
  • 1836: Desamortización de Mendizábal.
  • March 5, 1838: Cincomarzada (Zaragoza).
  • 1840-1843: Regency of General Espartero.
  • 1843-1868: Reign of Isabel II.
  • 1850: First railway line in Spain.
  • 1864: First International Workingmen’s Association founded.
  • 1868: The Glorious Revolution (Spain).
  • 1868-1874: Democratic Sexennium (Spain).
  • 1870: Unifications of Italy and Germany.
  • 1870-1873: Reign of Amadeo I of Savoy (Spain).
  • 1870-1914: Age of Imperialism.
  • 1873-1874: First Spanish Republic.
  • 1875-1902: Bourbon Restoration (Spain).
  • 1875-1885: Reign of Alfonso XII (Spain).
  • 1876: Constitution of the Restoration (Spain).
  • 1885: Berlin Conference.
  • 1885-1902: Regency of Maria Christina (Spain).