Nietzsche: Philosophy, Culture, and 19th-Century Ideas
Nietzsche’s 19th-Century Philosophical Roots
Nietzsche’s life spanned the second half of the nineteenth century. This analysis examines the historical, cultural, and philosophical events of that period which relate to his philosophy, seeking the roots that nourished the key elements of Nietzsche’s thought.
Nihilism & 19th-Century Dominant Ideologies
Nietzsche’s nihilism, encompassing both its challenging and affirmative aspects, expresses the sense of crisis that Western society of the era felt about its world. The two representative classes of the nineteenth century, the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, shared an optimistic vision of the future. Two prominent schools of thought during this period were:
- Comte’s positivism: Predicted a glorious future through the alliance of the bourgeoisie and scientific development.
- Marxism: Advocated for the destruction of the bourgeoisie to liberate the workers.
Nietzsche disagreed with both these positions.
Artistic Revolutions: Impressionism & Wagner
The art world also expressed the need to break with tradition, exemplified by the avant-garde movement. The Impressionists aimed to paint realities as they were perceived, not as one thought they should be seen. Similarly, Nietzsche distinguished between a dynamic, experiential truth (akin to the mystical) and a static reality (true only for reason). Impressionism sought to be faithful to nature, much as Nietzsche’s philosophy aimed to be faithful to life. Nietzsche and the Impressionists shared the common experience of being misunderstood in their time.
Richard Wagner merged all arts in his musical dramas, breaking with tradition, a feat Nietzsche greatly admired, leading to a period of friendship between them.
Literary Decadence & Bohemian Lifestyles
In literature, particularly poetry, the decadent spirit found its finest expression. Symbolist poets like Verlaine and Rimbaud, while rejecting bourgeois values, exhibited a certain aristocratic and elitist character. They embodied the bohemian lifestyle: renouncing traditional values and seeking new, often dangerous experiences (e.g., alcohol, drugs, homosexual relationships) to expand their sense of life, with a desire to provoke. Oscar Wilde is perhaps the most genuine representative of this movement. In Nietzsche’s philosophy, this attitude towards life can be seen in the contrast between “master morality” and “slave morality.” The paintings of Degas and Toulouse-Lautrec vividly reflect this bohemian milieu.
Nietzsche’s Critique: Beyond Good & Evil
Nietzsche critiqued a decadent society that he believed imposed constricting norms. He advocated for the demolition of dominant negative values to build something new and different. This involved living “beyond good and evil,” a concept also explored by Dostoevsky. Nietzsche aligned with the avant-garde movements of his time, defined by their break with the past. His concept of the Superman (Übermensch) proposed a retrieval of pre-classical Greek values, contrasting with anarchists who supported a stateless society. Nietzsche advocated for a life ruled by aesthetic values, aspiring for their resurgence.
The Superman, Darwinism & The Innocent Child
The Superman theory embodies the affirmative aspect of Nietzsche’s philosophy. This doctrine significantly influenced Western man’s conception of himself and his culture. Darwinian theory extended beyond the biological field, giving rise to social Darwinism. In the social sphere, this thesis was used by ruling classes to justify their privileged position, the alienation of the working classes, and the imperialism of great powers.
Nietzsche emphasized the importance of recovering the “innocent child,” viewing the child as untainted by traditional values. This concept suggested the possibility of a new humanity. The theme of returning to childhood as a quest for purity also appears in the art of Gauguin, Matisse, and the Fauves.
Will to Power, Freud & Masters of Suspicion
Nietzsche’s concept of the “will to power” finds echoes in Freud’s psychoanalysis. Freud’s theory gave great importance to instincts and the libido, paying close attention to childhood and the powerful erotic impulses present during this period of life. Freud, like Nietzsche, critiqued a decadent society that imposed prohibitions on humans, preventing them from achieving a balanced life. Freud, Marx, and Nietzsche are collectively known as the “masters of suspicion.”