New Testament & Christology: Parables, Gospels, and Doctrine
Unit 1: Introduction to the New Testament & Christology
Parables
Parable — a short story that uses everyday images to communicate religious messages. Parables both reveal and conceal. Different types of parables include:
- The Surprise of Gods Kingdom
- Gods upside-down Kingdom
- Gods Kingdom that requires a decision
Key Figures
- King Herod ambitious, brutal, and successful; rebuilt the Temple in Jerusalem; allowed local rulers to oversee small areas as long as they pledged allegiance to Rome; maintained strict control.
- Pontius Pilate Roman governor at the time of Jesus crucifixion; known to be ruthless and to have put down several Jewish rebellions with mass crucifixions; he did not think Jesus was guilty but condemned him to satisfy the crowd.
Key Terms and Doctrines
- Doctrine an official, authoritative teaching of the Church based on the Revelation of God.
- Apostolic succession the uninterrupted passing on of authority from the Apostles directly to the bishops.
- Divine Revelation Gods self-communication through which he makes known the mystery of his divine plan.
- Gospel the “Good News” of the Revelation of God in and through the Word made flesh, Jesus Christ; the four books of the New Testament that focus on the person, life, teachings, sufferings, death, and Resurrection of Jesus.
- Torah a Hebrew word meaning “law” referring to the first five books of the Old Testament; also refers to the Law of Moses.
- Sacred Tradition literally means “what is handed on”; it refers to the process by which the message of Christ is transmitted from one generation to another and is found in creeds, writings of early Church fathers, and the liturgy.
- Sacred Scripture the collection of holy and inspired writings officially and solemnly recognized in the Christian canon.
- Synoptic Gospels from the Greek for “seeing together,” the name given to the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke because they are similar in style and content.
Structure of the New Testament
How many books are in the New Testament? There are 27 books, divided into four sections:
- Law 4 Gospels
- History Acts of the Apostles
- Wisdom Epistles
- Prophecy Revelation to John
Stages of Gospel Formation
- The Life and Teaching of Jesus Jesus lives and teaches among us until his Ascension.
- The Oral Tradition the Apostles handed on what Jesus said and did, in a fuller understanding brought about by the Resurrection of Christ and the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
- The Written Tradition the inspired authors wrote the four Gospels, selecting from what had been handed on in either oral or written form to bring the truth about Jesus.
Criteria for Historical Reliability of the New Testament
- Genuineness it is the work of the author to whom it is ascribed; tests whether the stated author is actually the true author of the work (principal test).
- Veracity the author is trustworthy, well informed, and truthful; determines whether the author is reliable.
- Integrity the work is intact, substantially the same as when it left the authors hand; examines whether the work has been passed down correctly and completely.
Different Jewish Groups in the New Testament Era
- Chief priests / High priests led the religious services and sacrifices at the Temple.
- Pharisees known for strict adherence to the laws of the Old Testament, both written and oral; believed in the resurrection of the dead and angels; emphasized ritual purity and detailed interpretation of the Torah.
- Sadducees a group largely composed of the elite and wealthy class; many were chief priests; they did not believe in the resurrection of the dead, rejected oral law, and controlled the Temple.
- Scribes scholars and teachers of Jewish Law and Scripture.
- Zealots believed God wanted Israel to be independent again; they preached violent overthrow of Roman occupiers and advocated armed resistance.
- Essenes a Jewish sect known for asceticism and communal living, strongly associated with the Dead Sea Scrolls; they often lived in isolated desert communities.
Summary of the Four Gospels
Mark
- Date: 6570 AD
- Length: shortest Gospel
- Audience: persecuted Christians
- Theme: through suffering and death comes eternal life
- Beginning: baptism and public ministry
- Content: recounts acts of power and controversies with Pharisees; close, urgent camera-angle narrative with fast pace; does not include a birth narrative and begins with Jesus as an adult; includes graphic details and emphasizes Jesus humanity as it relates to his closest followers.
Matthew
- Date: c. 85 AD
- Audience: Jewish Christians
- Theme: Jesus fulfills and continues Jewish traditions as the promised Messiah
- Beginning: infancy narrative
- Structure: organized around five major speeches, recalling the five books of the Torah
- Perspective: traditional sideline view showing the connections between Jesus and Old Testament tradition.
Luke
- Date: c. 8090 AD
- Length: longest Gospel
- Audience: Gentile Christians
- Theme: Gods love and commandments are universal
- Beginning: infancy narrative and genealogy back to Adam
- Structure: framed around a journey to Jerusalem; presents a wide-angle perspective and emphasizes Jesus mission to the poor and outcasts.
John
- Date: c. 90100 AD
- Audience: Jewish Christians, Gentiles, and Samaritans
- Theme: Jesus is the divine Word made flesh; salvation comes through belief and commitment to him
- Structure: prologue, Book of Signs (organized around seven great signs), Book of Glory (organized around Jesus death and Resurrection), and an epilogue
- Perspective: high, theological vantage point with emphasis on Jesus divinity.
Unit 2: The Incarnation
Heresy and Christological Errors
Heresy the obstinate denial or stubborn doubt of a truth that must be believed by divine and Catholic faith by a baptized Christian; an official belief that goes against the Catholic Church. Examples include:
- Docetism claimed that Jesus was purely spiritual and only appeared to have a physical body, denying the reality of his human incarnation.
- Arianism taught that Jesus is the highest creature but not truly God.
- Nestorianism proposed that Jesus consists of two separate persons rather than one Divine Person with two natures.
Hypostatic Union and the Incarnation
Hypostatic union in Christ there are two natures, human and divine, united in one Divine Person. The two natures are joined completely so that both are always fully present.
Incarnation from the Latin meaning “to become flesh,” referring to the mystery of Jesus Christ, the Divine Son of God, becoming man. In the Incarnation Jesus became truly man while remaining truly God. Important points:
- God enters human history.
- The divine Word became flesh in Jesus Christ.
- Jesus Christ is fully God and fully man.
- The Incarnation demonstrates Gods love for humanity.
Why the Incarnation Was Necessary
Only God could perfectly bridge the divine-human gap. If Jesus were only human, he could not save us fully. If he were only God, he could not truly represent us. God became human in Jesus to save humanity from sin and restore our relationship with him; to fulfill divine promises of salvation.
The Four Reasons the Word Became Flesh
- To save us by reconciling us with God Jesus bridges the gap between humanity and God, offering salvation from sin.
- To reveal Gods love to us through his life, death, and Resurrection Jesus demonstrates Gods unconditional love.
- To serve as our model of holiness in both actions and teachings.
- To make us partakers in the divine nature “The Son of God became man so that man might become God” St. Athanasius.
Key Verse for the Incarnation
John 1:14 “And the Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us, and we saw his glory, the glory as of the Fathers only Son, full of grace and truth.”
Christ’s Divinity and Humanity
- Divinity performs miracles, forgives sins, claims divine identity, and predicts details of his own Passion.
- Humanity born of Mary, grew and learned, experienced hunger, fatigue, sorrow, emotions, suffered and died, had close friends, and exercised free will.
Old Testament Prophecies
The Old Testament contains many prophecies pointing to the Messiah. Jesus fulfills them not by coincidence but because he is the one God promised. Prophecies fall into three types:
- Birth and identity who he would be.
- Mission and ministry what he would do.
- Suffering and death how he would save us.
Differences Between Luke and Matthew on the Birth of Jesus
Matthew
- Characters: Mary, Joseph, Jesus, an angel, King Herod, and the Wise Men.
- Events: the Wise Men visit, King Herod seeks to kill Jesus, an angel visits Joseph in a dream, the Wise Men give gold, frankincense, and myrrh, the family flees to Egypt, and the massacre of infants occurs.
- What it tells us about Jesus: portrays Jesus in a kingly and exalted status, connecting him to Israels history and messianic expectations.
Luke
- Characters: Emperor Augustus, Mary, Joseph, and shepherds.
- Events: no place at the inn, a census, shepherds visited by angels, Jesus placed in a manger, and the shepherds glorify God after visiting Jesus.
- What it tells us about Jesus: emphasizes Jesus humility and the historical reality of his birth; highlights Jesus concern for the lowly and marginalized.
Unit 3: Gospel of Mark
Key Terms
- Messiah Hebrew for “anointed one.” The equivalent Greek term is Christos. In the Old Testament the anointed one applied to kings, priests, and prophets consecrated with oil, water, or the Spirit of God.
- Martyr literally means “witness”; includes the willingness to die for the faith and to avoid renouncing beliefs.
Mark’s Gospel
- Audience: Roman Christians, many of whom were persecuted.
- Theme: following Jesus involves suffering, but it leads to eternal life.
- Author and Source: Mark is the shortest Gospel; Matthew and Luke probably used Mark as a source. Peter is often considered Marks principal source.
- Style: brief, urgent, and action-driven; the word “immediately” is used many times.
- Messianic Secret: a distinctive theme in Mark where Jesus often commands silence after miracles or healings to avoid political misunderstandings. Many Jews expected a political or military Messiah; Mark emphasizes that Jesus true identity is revealed through suffering and the cross, and that the full truth about Jesus is clear only after his death and Resurrection.
Unit 4: Gospel of Matthew
Eschatology and Final Things
- Eschatology the study of the last things: death, judgment, heaven, and hell.
- Purgatory a place or state of purification; one of the possible states for a human being after death. It is temporary. The claim that purgatory is merely a Catholic invention with no biblical basis is false.
- Death the separation of body and soul; each person undergoes a particular judgment at death.
- Final Judgment the judgment of the human race by Jesus Christ at his second coming, when the dead will be raised.
Matthew’s Gospel
- Who is Matthew a tax collector also called Levi; he presents Jesus as a new and greater Moses and emphasizes Jesus as the Messiah and fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies.
- Audience: Jewish Christians.
- Theme: Jesus is the Messiah who continues and fulfills Jewish tradition.
Keys, Authority, and Binding and Loosing
Keys symbolize authority and leadership, especially in teaching and decision making. When Jesus gives Peter the keys (Matthew 16 and 18), he entrusts Peter with royal and spiritual authority as the foundation and leader of the Church; this office is meant to continue through his successors, the popes.
Three meanings of binding and loosing include:
- Teaching authority rabbis could give binding interpretations of the Law, and the apostles share in this authority.
- Community authority the power to admit or exclude members from the community.
- Forgiveness of sins “loosing” can mean forgiving or freeing from sin.
Corporal Works of Mercy
Derived primarily from the parable of the sheep and the goats, these are charitable actions helping neighbors in bodily need. The seven corporal works are:
- Feed the hungry
- Give drink to the thirsty
- Clothe the naked
- Shelter the homeless
- Care for the sick
- Visit the imprisoned
- Bury the dead
The Sermon on the Mount
Jesus teaches true holiness in the Sermon on the Mount by emphasizing the heart behind the law. He delivers the Beatitudes and redefines holiness as interior transformation rather than mere external obedience. He does not abolish the Old Law but perfects it; the New Law is about love that fulfills the commandments.
Jesus gathered his disciples and a crowd on a hillside to teach them how to live as citizens of Gods kingdom. He taught the Beatitudes, explained the deeper meaning of the Law, taught about prayer (including the Lords Prayer), fasting, giving, trusting God, love for enemies, forgiveness, and living by the Golden Rule. He warned against false prophets and emphasized building life on his words like a wise builder on solid rock.
Unit 5: Gospel of Luke
Todah and the Eucharist
Todah a thanksgiving peace offering in the Davidic covenant, a celebratory banquet shared with God to deepen relationship with him. It was important for Jews: someone delivered from danger or illness would gather family and friends for a feast of unleavened bread, wine, and a lamb sacrificed at the Temple, with prayers and songs of thanks. Its purpose was to remember Gods saving actions. The Hebrew todah connects to the Greek eucharistia, the root of “Eucharist.” The Todah tradition foreshadows Jesus Last Supper, which combines elements of Passover and Todahbread, wine, hymns, prayers, and the sacrificial lamb.
Luke: Author, Audience, and Theme
- Who is Luke a Gentile physician and companion of the Apostle Paul; well educated and a skilled writer; author of Luke and Acts of the Apostles.
- Audience: Gentile Christians, dated about AD 8090; addressed to Theophilus (meaning “God-lover”), who may be a specific person or a symbolic addressee.
- Theme: the salvation of all nations and the lowly; Gods commandment of love is universal.
- Reason for writing: to give an orderly account (Prologue).
- Other book by Luke: Acts of the Apostles.
Meals, Meals Scenes, and Social Themes
Number of meal scenes: Luke includes around ten meal scenes. In the Old Testament the kingdom of God was often pictured as a feast or banquet; Luke links eating bread with the coming of the kingdom Jesus inaugurates. The meal scenes serve as foretastes of the Messianic Kingdom and reveal social themes: those who were poor, outcast, or despised are often highlighted.
Social Outcasts and Key Episodes
- Lepers considered ritually unclean, forced to live apart from society, often forbidden from worshipping in the Temple, and usually very isolated.
- Tax collectors Jews who worked for the Romans and were despised for collecting taxes and often enriching themselves; Jesus calls Levi (Matthew) and dines with him, showing fellowship and extending grace to sinners.
Miracles, Meals, and Eucharistic Connections
The Feeding of the 5,000 the crowd follows Jesus and he multiplies five loaves and two fish to feed everyone; one of the few miracles recorded in all four Gospels. The scene foreshadows the Eucharist: the four verbs take, bless, break, and give are the same actions Jesus uses at the Last Supper. Jesus provides bread for all, showing Gods abundance and care, and prefigures the sacramental meal shared by the Church.
Last Supper and the Road to Emmaus
Last Supper Jesus gathers with his apostles for the Passover meal, takes bread and wine, says “This is my body … This cup is the new covenant in my blood,” and commands, “Do this in memory of me.” The Last Supper is both a Passover and a Todah meal, sharing bread, wine, the sacrificial lamb, hymns, and prayers.
Road to Emmaus after Jesus death two disciples do not recognize him on the road; he explains the Scriptures to them and stays for a meal. At dinner he takes bread, blesses it, breaks it, and gives it, and they recognize him. The meal reveals the Risen Christ and shows the Eucharist as an encounter with the living Jesus; the disciples are energized and return to proclaim the Resurrection.
Unique Features of Luke
Luke emphasizes mercy, forgiveness, and compassion, with a focus on the poor, outcasts, and sinners. He includes several parables not found in other Gospels, frames Jesus as the Savior for all people, and records unique details of Jesus conception and birth. Luke consulted eyewitnesses, including sources such as the Blessed Virgin Mary, resulting in many distinctive details.
Unit 6: Gospel of John
Key Terms and Characters
- Sign a supernatural event, symbol, or mark used by God to communicate, authenticate a message, confirm a promise, or elicit faith.
- Mary Magdalene a devoted disciple delivered from demonic possession; she loved Jesus and was present at the cross; she first found the empty tomb and proclaimed it.
- Thomas absent at Jesus first appearance to the disciples; he refused to believe unless he saw and touched the wounds. Jesus appears again after eight days, invites Thomas to touch his wounds, and Thomas confesses, “My Lord and my God.”
- Sanhedrin the highest council of the ancient Jews, consisting of 71 members exercising authority in religious matters.
Who is John and Why He Wrote
- Who is John one of the twelve Apostles, a fisherman and brother of James, later called “the disciple whom Jesus loved.” He wrote the Gospel of John, three letters (13 John), and the Book of Revelation.
- Reason for writing: to strengthen the faith of early Christians by giving accurate and justified proof that Jesus is the Son of God who came down from Heaven.
- Political and cultural context: tension between Jews who believed Jesus was the Messiah and Jews who did not; strained relationships in synagogues and broader cultural pressures.
- Audience: Jewish Christians (some expelled from synagogues), Gentiles, and Samaritans; familiar with Greek culture.
The Prologue
The Prologue presents Jesus as the eternal Word of God, who was with God in the beginning and through whom all things were made. He is the true light that shines in the darkness and offers life to humanity. Though many did not recognize or receive him, those who did were given the right to become children of God. The Word became flesh and lived among us, revealing Gods glory, full of grace and truth. Through Jesus we receive grace upon grace, and he makes the unseen Father known to the world.
Two names given to Christ in the Prologue: Word uncreated and existing with God before creation; and Light who illuminates and reveals Gods plan.
Significant Episodes and Their Meanings
Wedding Feast at Cana
Jesus first public sign, in Galilee. At a wedding feast the hosts ran out of wine, which was a social embarrassment. Mary tells Jesus, implying he can help. Jesus calls Mary “woman” and initially says his hour has not yet come, yet he performs the sign, initiating his public ministry. Symbolic meanings include:
- The abundance of Gods Kingdom (extravagant provision of wine).
- The joy of marital love.
- A foreshadowing of the transubstantiation of wine into blood in the Eucharist.
- An anticipation of the marriage supper of the Lamb in Heaven.
Raising of Lazarus
Lazarus is very sick; Jesus arrives after Lazarus has died. The delay is purposeful to reveal Jesus sovereignty over life and death and to demonstrate his identity. Martha shows strong faith, Mary weeps, and Jesus is deeply moved and weeps, showing his full humanity. He commands the stone to be taken away and publicly prays before raising Lazarus.
Symbolic meanings:
- Jesus as life itself the sign confirms Jesus identity as the Resurrection and the Life.
- Power over death Jesus demonstrates absolute authority over death, foreshadowing his Resurrection.
- Spiritual resurrection Lazarus represents humanity dead in sin; Jesus calls the dead to life by his word.
- Removal of grave clothes unbinding symbolizes release from spiritual death, bondage, and sin.
Many Jews believe in Jesus after this sign; others report it to the Pharisees, which leads the Sanhedrin to plot Jesus death.
I AM Sayings in John
John records several “I AM” statements that reveal Jesus identity and mission:
- I AM the Bread of Life contrasts with manna in the wilderness; Jesus offers spiritual nourishment and anticipates the Eucharist.
- I AM the Light of the World Jesus brings spiritual illumination, truth, and guidance, exposing darkness and leading people to Gods truth.
- I AM the Gate / Door of the Sheep Jesus is the entry point to salvation and the protector of Gods people.
- I AM the Resurrection and the Life Jesus demonstrates power over death and offers future hope and present spiritual vitality.
- I AM the Good Shepherd Jesus cares for, protects, and knows his followers personally and willingly lays down his life for them.
- I AM the Way and the Truth and the Life Jesus is the exclusive path to the Father and embodies Gods truth.
- I AM the Vine Jesus is the true vine; believers are branches who must remain connected to him to produce spiritual fruit.
Evidence and Responses to the Empty Tomb
All four Gospels record that women discovered the empty tomb, which is notable because womens testimony was not highly valued in that culture (Joseph of Arimatheas tomb is the location in some accounts). The resurrection was preached in Jerusalem where the tomb could have been checked; even early critics admitted the tomb was empty and offered alternative explanations. Authorities never produced Jesus body, and the disciples, once fearful, became bold witnesses, indicating they truly believed the tomb was empty.
Skeptical responses include theories that the body was stolen, the wrong tomb was visited, authorities moved the body, or that the appearances were hallucinations.
Jesus’ Post-Resurrection Encounters with the Apostles
After the Resurrection the disciples were hiding in fear. On the evening of the Resurrection Jesus entered the locked room where they gathered, greeted them with “Peace be with you,” and showed his wounds as proof that he was truly risen. He breathed on them, saying, “Receive the Holy Spirit,” giving them authority to forgive sins, symbolically anticipating Pentecost and the new-creation breath. Jesus’ ministry of mercy and reconciliation continues through the apostles and their successors. A week later he appeared to Thomas, inviting him to touch the wounds; Thomas then declared, “My Lord and my God!” Later, by the Sea of Galilee, Jesus performed a miraculous catch of fish and shared a meal, reaffirming his presence. Finally, on a mountain in Galilee, he gave the Great Commission to make disciples of all nations, and after forty days he ascended into heaven, promising the gift of the Holy Spirit to guide them.