Nature, Culture, and the Foundations of Human Behavior
The Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Defining Nature and Innate Traits
Nature refers to what is not learned; it is what an individual possesses from birth and inherits genetically. Examples include:
- Walking upright.
- Having a specific number of fingers.
- Linguistic ability (the capacity for language).
Culture: Learned Habits and Social Norms
Culture refers to what is learned and acquired through habit and social norms. This includes utensils and tools, knowledge and beliefs, and forms of expression (art, science, religion, language). The human being is born with an animal nature and, throughout life, acquires a culture. However, cultural acquisition is dependent on genetic factors and human capacity.
Language and Aggression
From a biological standpoint, the ability to communicate by sign is nature, but speaking a specific language is culture.
Aggression is inherent to human beings (nature), but violence is what we learn (nurture). Uncontrolled aggression manifests as violence.
Genetics, Behavior, and Bioengineering
Genetic Determinism
Genetic Determinism defends the position that our behavior is entirely determined by our genes.
Temperament and Character
- Temperament: Forms of behavior that are difficult or impossible to change. (Often linked to genetics.)
- Character: Forms of behavior that can be changed. (Often linked to environment/learning.)
Genetic Engineering and Eugenics
Genetic Engineering is biotechnology involving the manipulation and transfer of DNA from one organism to another. This allows for the creation of new species, the correction of genetic defects, and the manufacturing of many compounds.
Eugenics is intervention aimed at enhancing genes or improving the human species through selective breeding or genetic manipulation.
Race, Racism, and Social Hierarchy
Defining Race
Races are groups of individuals that show greater genetic similarity among themselves than to individuals belonging to other groups. The notion of race is based on the idea that individuals are physically different because they have adapted to different climates and environments.
The Problem of Racism
Racism is the assumption that there are superior races and inferior races. Racists claim that superior races manifest relevant attributes such as intelligence, while inferior races lack such attributes. This racial hierarchy is used to excuse racist behavior toward another race, which considerably leads to the degeneration of the racist species itself.
Racism often hides behind false scientific reasons, concealing a desire to kill or subjugate the other race. Nazism is a prime example of extreme racism.
Anthropology and the Study of Human Groups
Culture and Anthropology
Culture is defined as the set of customs, beliefs, artistic manifestations, and human inventions (or non-inventions) of a group of individuals.
Cultural Anthropology studies the human being as a group member, focusing on:
- Tools and artifacts.
- Knowledge systems.
- Social customs.
Related Fields of Study
- Ethology: The part of biology that studies animal behavior, and also the human being, from an external standpoint.
- Ethnology: The study of the social characteristics of the human being.
Social Customs
Customs are behaviors of a society that we adopt due to group pressure. If we follow them, we are not penalized, and our conscience remains undisturbed (e.g., giving two kisses as a greeting instead of a handshake).
Customs are transmitted from one individual to another. Written transmission is considered more accurate than oral transmission. Humans have the capacity to invent, transmit, and learn.
Cultural Interaction and Ethical Stances
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s own culture is superior to others. It often leads to racist attitudes, similar to those seen in Nazism. An ethnocentric person is critical of other cultures but is generally not opposed to self-criticism.
Cultural Relativism
Cultural Relativism, in opposition to ethnocentrism, believes that all cultures must be respected. This position criticizes the inconveniences residing in human rights, defending the idea that a culture cannot be judged from the perspective of another. It does not advocate for cultures to mix (e.g., a relativist might say that stoning is wrong but would not actively intervene to remedy the situation in that culture).
Multiculturalism and Interculturalism
Multiculturalism involves the coexistence of people from different cultures in a common space. While coexistence can be enriching, leading to an exchange of culture (interculturalism), it can also be a source of friction affecting coexistence due to differing cultural sources.
Multiculturalism is a position that criticizes both the self and others. When coexistence exists, Interculturalism occurs alongside multiculturalism, defining mutual exchanges based on a minimum ethical standard.