Natural Religion: Deism and Theism
Natural Religion: Deism and Theism
Natural religion encompasses deism and theism, arising in response to both atheism and positive religions. A critique of Christianity led to the pursuit of a religion aligned with reason, avoiding rigid dogma. This involved identifying the core elements of religion, excluding aspects that lead to sectarianism (e.g., dietary restrictions, image worship, confession, specific dogmas). These elements, present in various faiths (Anglican, Lutheran, Calvinist, Catholic, etc.), were deemed superficial and irrational. Stripping away these elements from positive religions reveals the essence of natural religion. Thinkers like Rousseau sought a rational or natural core common to all faiths. This pursuit led to two interpretations: deism and theism.
Deism
Deism is the belief in God as the creator of the universe, about whom nothing more is known. This God established eternal, immutable laws and does not intervene in the world’s development, leaving humans solely responsible. It can be defined as belief in a rational God without dogma or obligations for believers, unlike traditional faiths.
Theism
Theism is the belief in a creator God who is also provident, commanding and controlling the world and humanity. This God can be known by humans. Despite the secularization that challenged traditional religious frameworks, atheism remained a minority view during the French Enlightenment. The general trend in the European Enlightenment favored deism, a position also adopted by earlier British thinkers like Herbert Cherbury, Tindal, Toland, Bolingbroke, and Pope.
The Origin of Deism
Deism originated with Herbert Cherbury, a 17th-century English thinker who advocated for a ‘natural religion’ devoid of revelation, mysteries, and supernatural spirituality. It is a religion based solely on reason. John Toland and Matthews Tindal attempted to eliminate irrational elements from Christianity, emphasizing reason’s sovereignty. Toland’s work, Christianity not Mysterious, exemplifies this perspective. Science provided the foundation for deist positions: rationality and the scientific method influenced philosophical inquiries into God’s nature and role in the world. Newton’s work, portraying the world as a mechanism governed by a few general laws, played a significant role. This mechanistic view suggested a great architect or planner. The theological argument for God’s existence emerged, conceiving the universe as a product of intelligent design. Many English philosophers seemed to find God through rational mechanics and empirical knowledge. Deism spread through the rejection of ecclesiastical authority and the rise of science, which offered alternative explanations for phenomena previously attributed to divine intervention. In 18th-century France, deism served as a middle ground between atheism and theism.
Deism in France
In France, deism was the initial position of many encyclopedists, with Voltaire as a prominent example. He even built a temple inscribed “Deo erexit Voltaire” (Voltaire erected this to God), emphasizing God rather than saints. In deism, God is the ultimate source of the universe. Locke and Newton held similar views. God, in the deistic conception, is the Supreme Creator, necessary to explain the universe’s origin beyond an infinite causal chain. The materialistic-mechanistic model didn’t necessitate atheism; deism complemented it. However, little else could be known about the deity. Voltaire’s Philosophical Dictionary states: “…It is a foolish temerity to pretend to guess what is that Being, if it has spread or not, whether or not a place, how it exists or how to work.” This demonstrates deism’s agnosticism regarding God’s essence and attributes, while acknowledging God’s existence. God is the great Artificer of Nature, and that is the extent of our knowledge. Voltaire illustrates this through a dialogue: ‘Nature: I am the great all; Not all. I am not a mathematician, and everything is organized in my mathematical laws. Guess if you can, as we have done this. Philosopher: If you are the great all do not know your laws are mathematical and geometric deeply, there must be an eternal geometer who lead you, your presiding intelligence operations…’ (Voltaire’s Philosophical Dictionary, Article: Nature). The best example of deism is Kant, who, in Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1792-1794), argues that morality is the only possible religion.