Nationalism in Europe and Mineral Resources in India
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
The idea of the fatherland and citizen was created to emphasize a community that enjoyed equal rights under the constitution. The royal standard was replaced with a new French flag, the tricolor. The Estates General, elected by active citizens, was renamed the National Assembly. New hymns were composed, oaths were taken in the name of the nation, and martyrs were commemorated.
A centralized administrative system was created, formulating uniform laws for all citizens. Internal custom duties were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted. Regional dialects were discouraged, and the French language was promoted as the common language of the nation.
The revolutionaries declared it was the mission and destiny of the French people to liberate Europe from despotism and help other regions become nations.
The Spread of Nationalist Ideas
Events in France motivated people across Europe. Students and the educated middle classes started Jacobin clubs, laying the groundwork for the French army’s advancement into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s. Thus, French armies carried the idea of nationalism to foreign lands.
Peasants, artisans, workers, and new businessmen enjoyed newfound freedom. They realized that uniform laws, standard weights and measures, and a common currency facilitated the movement and exchange of goods and capital.
However, reactions to French rule in conquered territories were mixed. Initially seen as liberators, the French army’s imposition of increased taxes, censorship, and forced conscription sparked hostility, outweighing the advantages of Napoleon’s administrative changes.
Liberal Nationalism
In the early nineteenth century, national unity was closely allied with liberalism. The new middle classes embraced individual freedom and equality before the law as the basis of liberalism. Politically, liberalism emphasized government by consent, an end to autocracy and clerical privileges, and the need for a constitution and representative government. The inviolability of private property was also paramount.
Suffrage
Universal suffrage remained elusive. Initially, only propertied men could vote in France. The Jacobins briefly extended suffrage to all adult males, but the Napoleonic Code reverted to limited suffrage. Women were minors under Napoleon’s rule, subject to the authority of fathers and husbands. The struggle for voting rights for women and non-propertied men continued throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The Revolutions of 1848
The 1830s witnessed economic hardship in Europe. Population growth led to unemployment and migration to overcrowded urban slums. England’s advanced industrialization meant cheap manufactured goods outcompeted small producers in other European towns. Aristocracy persisted in some regions, burdening peasants with feudal dues and obligations. A bad harvest and rising food prices resulted in widespread poverty.
In 1848, revolts by the poor coincided with revolutions led by the educated middle classes demanding national unification and constitutions in areas like Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. They envisioned nation-states based on parliamentary principles, with a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom of association.
The Frankfurt Parliament
In German regions, numerous political associations comprising middle-class professionals, businessmen, and artisans convened in Frankfurt and voted for an all-German National Assembly. On May 18, 1848, 831 elected representatives assembled in the Church of St. Paul, drafting a constitution for a unified German nation headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament.
Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, offered the crown under these terms, rejected it and joined other monarchs in opposing the assembly. The parliament, facing growing opposition from the aristocracy and military, lost support due to its middle-class dominance and resistance to workers’ and artisans’ demands. Ultimately, troops disbanded the assembly.
Women, despite actively participating in the liberal movement, were denied voting rights and relegated to observer status in the visitors’ gallery during the Frankfurt parliament.
The Legacy of 1848
Despite their suppression, the liberal movements of 1848 had a lasting impact. Monarchs in Central and Eastern Europe recognized the need for concessions to quell further revolutions. Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in the Habsburg dominions and Russia. The Habsburg rulers granted Hungary more autonomy in 1867.
The Unification of Germany
Otto von Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck, Prussia’s chief minister, orchestrated German unification. Utilizing the Prussian army and bureaucracy, he waged three wars over seven years against Austria, Denmark, and France, culminating in Prussian victory. In January 1871, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles.
The newly unified German state prioritized modernizing its currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems, with Prussian practices serving as a model.
Nationalism and Imperialism
By the late nineteenth century, nationalism had abandoned its liberal-democratic ideals, becoming a narrow creed. European powers exploited nationalist sentiments in colonized regions to further their imperialist ambitions.
Conflict in the Balkans
The Balkans, a region of diverse geography and ethnicity, encompassing modern-day Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro, became a hotbed of conflict.
The Ottoman Empire’s control over much of the Balkans weakened as romantic nationalism spread. Throughout the nineteenth century, the Ottomans attempted modernization and internal reforms but failed to prevent European subject nationalities from declaring independence. The Balkans invoked history and national identity to assert their right to self-determination.
The struggle for independence among Slavic nationalities transformed the Balkans into a scene of intense conflict and rivalry among European powers like Russia, Germany, England, and Austria-Hungary, each seeking to expand its influence. This ultimately culminated in the First World War.
The Rise of Anti-Colonial Nationalism
Colonies under European rule began resisting imperial domination, developing their own forms of nationalism. The concept of nation-states became a global phenomenon.
Mineral Resources in India
Types of Minerals
- Metallic Minerals:
- Ferrous (containing iron): Iron ore, manganese, nickel, cobalt
- Non-ferrous: Copper, lead, tin, bauxite
- Precious: Gold, silver, platinum
- Non-metallic Minerals: Mica, salt, potash, sulfur, granite, limestone, marble, sandstone
- Energy Minerals: Coal, petroleum, natural gas
Occurrence of Minerals
- In igneous and metamorphic rocks: Smaller occurrences are called veins, and larger ones are called lodes. Examples: tin, copper, zinc, lead.
- In sedimentary rocks: Minerals occur in beds or layers. Examples: coal, iron ore, gypsum, potash salt, sodium salt.
- By decomposition of surface rocks: Residual weathered material contains ores. Example: bauxite.
- As alluvial deposits: Placer deposits found in valley floors and hills contain minerals not corroded by water. Examples: gold, silver, tin, platinum.
- In ocean water: Common salt, magnesium, and bromine are derived from ocean waters.
Iron Ore in India
India is rich in high-quality iron ore.
- Magnetite: The finest iron ore (up to 70% iron content) used in the electrical industry due to its magnetic properties.
- Hematite: The most important industrial iron ore (50-60% iron content).
Iron Ore Belts in India
- Orissa-Jharkhand Belt: Badampahar mines (Odisha), Gua and Noamundi (Jharkhand).
- Durg-Bastar-Chandrapur Belt: Bailadila range (Chhattisgarh), exports to Japan and South Korea.
- Bellary-Chitradurga-Chikmaglur-Tumkur Belt: Kudremukh mines (Karnataka), 100% export unit.
- Maharashtra-Goa Belt: Lower quality ores exported through Marmagao port.
Manganese
Used in steel, ferro-manganese alloy, bleaching powder, insecticides, and paints. Odisha is the largest producer.
Coal
Found in Gondwana (over 200 million years old) and Tertiary (55 million years old) deposits.
- Gondwana Coal: Damodar valley (Jharia, Raniganj, Bokaro), Godavari, Mahanadi, Son, and Wardha valleys.
- Tertiary Coal: Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland.
Mica
Used in the electrical and electronic industries due to its insulating properties and resistance to high voltage. The Koderma-Gaya-Hazaribagh belt (Jharkhand) is the leading producer, followed by Ajmer (Rajasthan) and Nellore (Andhra Pradesh).
Hazards of Mining
Mining poses risks to workers and residents, including mine collapses, flooding, fires, dust pollution, and respiratory diseases.
Conservation of Minerals
Minerals are finite and non-renewable resources with a slow replenishment rate. Conservation methods include:
- Planned and sustainable use
- Recycling of metals
- Use of renewable substitutes
- Technological advancements for utilizing low-grade ores
Energy Resources
Coal
- Lignite: Low-grade brown coal with high moisture content, used for electricity generation (Neyveli, Tamil Nadu).
- Bituminous Coal: Most popular coal for commercial and metallurgical use.
- Anthracite Coal: Highest quality hard coal.
Nuclear Energy
Generated from uranium and thorium (Jharkhand, Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan, Monazite sand of Kerala).
Solar Energy
India receives abundant sunlight. Solar plants can be established in rural areas, reducing dependence on firewood and dung cakes.
Wind Power
Tamil Nadu has the largest wind farm cluster in India, followed by Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Lakshadweep.
Biogas
Produced from shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste. More efficient than kerosene, dung cakes, and charcoal.
Tidal Energy
Utilizes the flow of water during tides to generate electricity. A 900 MW tidal power plant is located in the Gulf of Kuchchh.
Geothermal Energy
. They are; the Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga Valley in Ladakh.
- Use of minerals in a planned and sustainable manner.Recycling of metals.Use of alternative renewable substitutes.Technology should be improved to use the low grade ores profitably.//india being a tropical country receives sunlight in abundance throughout the year. Solar plants can be easily established in rural and remote areas.. It will minimize the dependence of rural households on firewood and dunk cakes which in turn will contribute to environmental conservation and adequate supply of manure in agriculture. it can be used to keep a building warm in cold areas. about 20mw/sq km annum can be produced.//copper: It is malleable, ductile and a good conductor of heat. * It is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries.india is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper. balghat mines in mp, khetri mines in rajasthan, singbhum in jharkhand r leading producers.//ndia is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied minerals resources. However these are unevehy distributed resources. Peninsular rocks contains most of the reserves of coal, metallic, mica and many other non metallic minerals Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of the peninsular in Gujarat and Assam have most of the petroleum deposits.Rajasthan with the rock system of the peninsula has reserve of many non-ferrous minerals. The vast alluvial plains of the north India are almost devoid of economic minerals These variations exists largely because of the differences in the geological structure, process and time involved in the formation of minerals.//India is deficient in quality coal and natural oil. Therefore, nuclear energy is expected to play a complementary role. Nuclear power stations would be handy when other power resources are either not tapped or are in short supply. Nuclear power is supplied to the power grid and in no way different from hydel or thermal power. India has been a leader in peaceful uses of atomic energy in fields like medicine and agriculture//bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks in aluminium silicates. india’s bauxite deposits are mainly found in Amarkantak plateau, maikal hills and the plateau regions of bilaspur katni. in odisha panchpatmali deposits in koratpur district are v imp deposits.limestone is found in association w rocks composed of cal carb or cal and mg carb.it is found in sedimentary rocksof geological formations.limestone is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in blast furnance.