Nationalism and Imperialism in the 19th Century: A Comprehensive Overview

Posted on May 9, 2024 in History

ITEM 5. Nationalism and Imperialism

I. Nationalism

Between 1848 and 1873, stateless nations like Germany, Italy, and Poland experienced a surge in nationalist movements.

1. France

In 1851, Louis Bonaparte staged a coup, establishing the Second Empire and crowning himself Emperor Napoleon III. His reign prioritized liberalism and order, with foreign policy aimed at bolstering the Empire. However, France’s involvement in international conflicts led to the Empire’s downfall in 1870, giving rise to the Third Republic. Domestically, the divide between left and right Republicans, both authoritarian secular and clerical, widened. Isolated by Bismarck, France only began to emerge from isolation and pursue colonial expansion overseas in 1890.

2. Germany

Two trends emerged in Germany:

  • Greater Germany: Supporters aligned with Austria (Catholic power).
  • Little Germany: Supporters aligned with Prussia (Protestant power).

Prussian Chancellor Bismarck, a proponent of Little Germany, achieved unification through three wars: the War of Schleswig, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War. Prussia’s victory in the latter led to the fall of Napoleon III, the proclamation of the Prussian king as Kaiser, and the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine. In 1871, the German Reich II emerged as a leading power, prioritizing the isolation of France. Bismarck established diplomatic relations with Austria, Russia, Italy, and Britain. However, in 1890, William II removed Bismarck from power. During the late 19th century, Germany industrialized, leading to the formation of the German Social Democratic Party and prompting Bismarck to implement social reforms.

3. Italy

Northeast Italy was occupied by Austria, while the Papal States held significant power. The Italian state, led by Piedmont’s King Victor Emmanuel II and Prime Minister Cavour, achieved unification through wars between 1859 and 1870. However, Italy faced challenges such as the North-South economic imbalance, the dispute with the Pope over Rome’s sovereignty, and difficulties in establishing a colonial empire in Africa.

4. Russia

Despite its vast territory, the Russian Empire lagged behind socially, politically, and economically. Territorial expansion led to clashes with Austrians and Turks in Europe. Industrialization began in the late 19th century, including the construction of the Siberian railway, but social tensions remained high due to the lack of a parliamentary system and the persistence of serfdom until 1861. These tensions fueled the rise of socialist and communist movements, paving the way for the Russian Revolution.

5. Great Britain

Between 1837 and 1901, the United Kingdom reached its peak, with its empire expanding through overseas trade. As the first industrialized nation in Europe, it faced competition from Germany, the U.S., and Japan. Politically, the bipartisanship between liberals and conservatives provided stability. Domestically, the issue of Irish discontent with their inclusion in the United Kingdom arose.

II. Society in the Second Half of the 19th Century

1. An Urban Society

Key features:

  • Dominance of urban life over rural life across Europe.
  • Conservative middle class allied with the nobility to protect their property.
  • Growing importance of the service sector and its connection to the middle class.
  • Peasants migrating to cities, swelling the ranks of the proletariat.
  • State implementing social concessions to curb socialist movements.
  • Development of compulsory education laws.
  • Improvements in city health due to advancements in healthcare.

2. Main Workers’ Doctrines

In 1864, the International Workers Association (IWA) was founded in London. Two main groups emerged within the organization:

  1. Marxists: Based on the theories of Karl Marx, Marxism posits that societies are shaped by material forces and class struggle. In the 19th century, this struggle manifested as a confrontation between the bourgeoisie (owners of means of production) and the proletariat (workers). Marx predicted the proletariat’s triumph through revolution, leading to a period of proletarian dictatorship and eventually communism, a classless society without private property or a state. Marx advocated for political involvement by labor organizations and parties, leading to the rise of socialist parties demanding universal suffrage.
  2. Anarchists: Anarchists reject all forms of imposed organization, opposing the state and advocating for voluntary associations. They also reject politics, political parties, and elections. While Proudhon favored peaceful means, Bakunin and Kropotkin believed violence was necessary to dismantle the state.

The Second International, founded in 1889, debated whether to focus on national or international issues. Rosa Luxemburg championed the internationalist approach. Ultimately, the organization prioritized uniting the working class regardless of domestic disputes.

III. Imperialism

1. A New Phenomenon

From 1870 onwards, a new form of imperialism emerged, based on the exchange of manufactured goods for raw materials between the metropolis and its colonies. This contrasted with the old colonial empires of the 16th to 18th centuries (Spain, France, England, Portugal, and Holland). Britain and France expanded their territories, while the Netherlands and Portugal maintained theirs. Spain lost its colonies in Latin America and the Pacific. New colonial powers emerged, including Germany, Italy, Belgium, the United States, and Japan. By 1914, 84% of the world’s land was under European or U.S. control.

2. Forms of Domain

  1. Colony: Directly controlled and administered by the metropolis, involving annexation and loss of sovereignty for the colonized country (e.g., Belgian Congo).
  2. Concessions: Colonial powers gained commercial advantages, such as control of ports, in exchange for leaving the country independent (e.g., China).
  3. Protectorates: The colonial power controlled foreign policy and resources while leaving domestic politics to local authorities (e.g., Britain in Egypt, Spain in Morocco).

3. Factors of Imperial Expansion

1) Economic Factors:
  • Consequence of industrialization.
  • Colonies provided safe investment opportunities for European capital.
  • Source of cheap raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.
  • Opportunity for Europeans to improve their living conditions and wealth.
2) Political Factors:
  • Strategic imperialist policies (e.g., Britain’s control of sea routes).
  • Enhancement of the metropolis’ prestige.
  • Boost to nationalist sentiment.
3) Ideological Factors:
  • Growing influence of science and a desire to spread knowledge.
  • Sense of superiority and the mission to “civilize” backward peoples.
  • Renewed efforts at evangelization by Christian missionaries.

Imperial expansion was facilitated by advancements in transportation, communication, weaponry, and medicine.

4. Main Empires

A. Europe
  1. Great Britain: Colonies spanned all continents, strategically located to control sea routes (e.g., Gibraltar, Suez, Singapore, Hong Kong). By 1914, the British Empire encompassed 25% of the world’s population. India, rich in raw materials, was its most important colony. Britain controlled Suez, Egypt, and territories in Asia to protect its route to India. In Africa, it expanded from the Cape to Egypt. It also possessed Canada, parts of Oceania, and Pacific islands.
  2. France: In Africa, France conquered Algeria and Tunisia and established a protectorate in Morocco. It also gained territories in central and West Africa. In Asia, it controlled Indochina.
  3. Germany and Italy: After achieving unification in 1870, they acquired colonies in Africa.
  4. Belgium: King Leopold II secured the Congo as a colony.
  5. Russia: Conquered territories within its borders and expanded towards the Himalayas and India. By the mid-19th century, it reached Chinese territory.
B. Outside Europe
  1. United States: Its empire began with the defeat of Spain in 1898, leading to the occupation of the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Cuba. It also engaged in “dollar imperialism,” exerting economic control over American countries.
  2. Japan: Following rapid industrialization from 1868, Japan expanded throughout Asia, defeating China and Russia. It annexed Formosa and Korea and established a protectorate in Manchuria.

To avoid conflict, European powers convened the Berlin Conference in 1885 to divide Africa.

5. Consequences of Imperialism

A. On Colonized Peoples
  1. Political: Colonial rule introduced modern administration and political organization but disregarded tribal, linguistic, and religious differences, leading to conflicts after decolonization.
  2. Economic: Colonies were forced into plantation agriculture and mining, disadvantaging indigenous peasants and artisans who could not compete with manufactured goods from the metropolis.
  3. Social: The European bourgeoisie occupied the top of the social hierarchy, marginalizing indigenous populations who faced segregation and discrimination. The only positive aspect was a decline in mortality rates.
  4. Cultural: The imposition of Western civilization undermined indigenous cultures. However, Western-educated indigenous elites later led decolonization movements (e.g., Gandhi).
B. On Colonizing Peoples
  1. Economic: Powers benefited from access to raw materials, markets for manufactured goods, infrastructure projects, and plantation profits.
  2. Cultural: Western culture spread globally, leading to greater awareness of other civilizations but also reinforcing a sense of Western superiority.
C. International Implications

Colonial interests fueled tensions between powers, paving the way for World War I. Germany’s pursuit of a colonial empire after unification threatened Britain’s hegemony, leading to an alliance with France. In 1890, Europe divided into two blocs:

  1. Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
  2. Triple Entente: Britain, France, and Russia.

The path to war involved increased military spending, conscription, warmongering propaganda, and escalating conflicts, particularly in Morocco and the Balkans. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914 triggered a chain of declarations of war, with Italy switching sides to join the Entente alongside Greece and Romania, while Bulgaria and Turkey supported the Triple Alliance.