Nationalism and Imperialism in Europe: 19th Century Transformations
The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
The French Second Empire
Napoleon III proclaimed a liberal authoritarian regime, had an interventionist policy, and sought prestige.
The Unification of Germany
Prussian Chancellor Bismarck succeeded in the unification of Germany after small wars against Denmark, Austria, and France. There was a proclamation of the Second Reich in Versailles (1871).
The Unification of Italy
It was obstructed by Austria and the Papal States. Cavour, Minister of Piedmont, promoted the unification with the support of France and Prussia through wars of Italian unification and liberation. Afterward, imbalances emerged between north and south, clashes with the Church of Rome, and difficulties dealing with a colonial empire.
The Major European Powers
- The Second Reich: Bismarck formed alliances to isolate France. William II pursued a colonial career, rapid industrialization, and had a social democracy.
- Third French Republic: Foreign isolation, colonial expansion, and internal division between left and right.
- The Austro-Hungarian Empire: Dual monarchy, nationalism, separatism, and rivalry with Russia (Balkans).
- The Russian Empire: Socio-political delay, imperialism in Central Asia, the Balkans, and the Far East.
- The United Kingdom: A splendid isolation, stability due to bipartisanship, and problems in Ireland.
Imperialism
The Causes of Colonial Expansion
The new imperialism began from 1870 to 1930, reaching its apogee. The causes were:
- Economics: Cheap raw materials, markets, and investment of surplus capital.
- Demographics: Explosion of white settlements and emigration.
- Politics: Strategic prestige and possessions.
- Ideology: Racism, the right, and duty to rule.
The European Colonial Empires
- British: The most extensive and richest.
- Russian: Extending over all of Europe.
- French: Its main colony of the population was Algeria.
- Portuguese and Dutch: Held colonies since the early modern period.
- Spanish: In decay, loss of territories in America and the Pacific.
- Congo: Private possession of the King of Belgium.
Independent Asian and African Countries
Former empires of great length (China, Persia, and Turkey) were buffer states between different powers.
United States
Economic and demographic growth and spatial expansion (West). The Civil War was a war of secession between North and South. Imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific.
Japan
Not only a European imperial power, the Meiji Revolution imposed Western-style development and industrialization. Imperialism in Korea and China.
The Second Industrial Revolution
The New Momentum in the Industry
- Energy Sources: Electricity and petroleum.
- New Industrial Powers.
- Industries: Steel, chemical, and electrical.
- Transportation: Airplane and electric locomotive.
- Telecommunications: Telephone and radio.
Scientific Discoveries
Darwin’s theory of evolution, Pasteur and Koch in microbiology, electricity, the periodic table, synthetic products, and advances in economics and psychology. The great capitalist economy saw business concentration and new forms of work such as Taylorism, leading to a consumer society.
Society in the Second Half of the 19th Century
An Urban Society
A new social structure emerged: the conservative bourgeoisie and nobility, an increasing middle class, a growing proletariat, a diminishing peasantry, and the state’s social obligations.
The International Workers
- First International (1864): Division between Marxists and anarchists.
- Second International (1889): Marxism and social democracy.
The Emancipation of Women
Changing demographics: Fewer children per woman, less infant mortality, and later marriages. Access to secondary and university education, new employment perspectives, greater independence, the suffrage movement, and voting rights.