Moral Development, Values, and Ethics in Contemporary Society
Stages of Moral Development (Kohlberg)
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Rules are followed out of fear of punishment. Egocentrism (inability to consider different perspectives) prevails.
Example: I shouldn’t fight because my father will punish me.
Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange
Rules are followed only if they serve one’s own interests. Individualism (awareness that others have interests) emerges.
Example: I won’t antagonize my classmate because he gets good grades in math. Maybe if I help him with language, he’ll help me with math.
Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships
Standards are upheld to meet the expectations of close relations. Gregariousness (the ability to relate to different perspectives and empathize) develops.
Example: I should be a good person because that’s what’s expected of me.
Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order
Socially established rules are observed to maintain order. Communitarianism (awareness of the general interest) emerges.
Example: You must respect others.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
Legitimate standards are the result of agreements that favor the majority. Relativism (awareness of the plurality of norms and values) develops.
Example: I respect others even if they have different opinions because we’ve agreed to cooperate for the benefit of everyone.
Stage 6: Universal Principles
Rules are based on universal principles and values. Universalism (consciousness of universal values like equality and dignity) prevails.
Example: Respect for people is a universal principle, even if some companies don’t comply.
Values
Values represent what is considered worthwhile or has merit.
Polarity
Values have a positive (value) or negative (disvalue) character. Example: beauty/ugliness, good/evil.
Ideal Character
Values represent an ideal to strive for, not necessarily reality. Example: “Thou shalt not kill” is a value, yet killings still occur.
Theories of Value
Objectivist Theory
Values are objective qualities inherent in things, discovered by humans (Max Scheler).
Subjectivist Theory
Values are subjective, based on individual preferences.
Moral Dilemmas
A moral dilemma is a situation where conflicting values necessitate a difficult decision.
Ethics
Ethics is the reflection on moral standards, which are codes of conduct.
Ethical theory is a philosophical attempt to justify morality.
Types of Ethics
Autonomy, heteronomy, formal, material, teleological, deontological, cognitive, non-cognitive, minimum and maximum ethics.
Main Ethical Theories
Intellectualism, eudaemonism, hedonism, stoicism, natural law, formalism, emotivism, utilitarianism, discourse ethics.
Current Ethical Issues
Morality and Legality
Ecological Problems
Bioethical Issues
Globalization
Advantages
- Economic growth
- Unified legal frameworks
- Free movement of capital and goods
Disadvantages
- Over-exploitation of resources
- Offshoring
- Decreased economic independence
- Deteriorating work conditions and wages
Democracy
Direct Democracy
Citizens directly make policy decisions.
Indirect Democracy
Citizens express their views through voting for political parties.
Democratic Criteria
Welfare
Citizens benefit from state-provided services like healthcare, education, and pensions.
Equality
All citizens have the right to vote.
Discussion
Decisions are made through deliberation and consensus.
Autonomy
Political participation fosters personal autonomy and responsibility.
Risks to Democracy
Demagoguery
Popular support gained through lies and propaganda.
Standardization
Misunderstood equality leading to rejection of individual differences.
Tyranny of the Majority
Minority interests may be disregarded.
Lack of Participation
Limited involvement beyond voting in elections.