Monarchy, Enlightenment, and Colonial Rivalry in the 18th Century
Two Models of Monarchy
The Absolute Height of State
During the 18th century, absolutism reached its apogee in Europe. France developed absolutism, while England saw the rise of parliamentary monarchy.
The Absolute Monarchy in France
During the 18th century in France, Louis XIV, XV, and XVI reigned.
The Divine Right: Imbued with a sacred character, French monarchs were considered representatives of God on Earth.
Centralized Power: Most decision-making was concentrated in the King’s figure.
Bureaucracy: The king ruled through a staff to execute his orders.
Parliamentary Monarchy
During the 17th century, Parliament strengthened its power, even to the point of deposing the king. In 1679, Parliament imposed habeas corpus under Charles II, which ended arbitrary detentions and forced authorities to bring detainees before a tribunal.
Parliament also compelled the king to respect the Declaration of Rights, establishing the supremacy of Parliament, the separation of powers, and individual rights.
The Enlightenment
Enlightenment thinking is based on the use of reason in the 18th century.
- Freedom: Individual freedom to think for oneself, granting autonomy.
- Equality: All humans are born equal.
- Division of Powers: The three branches of government must be exercised by different bodies.
- National Sovereignty: Sovereignty resides in the people and emanates from them.
- Class Organization: Based on wealth rather than nationality.
Through faith in progress, education can be achieved.
Diffusion of Modernist Ideas
Modernist ideas had a reduced circulation, limited to the high bourgeoisie through salons, clubs, and cafes. However, their diffusion was best achieved through books.
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened Despotism is the attempt to reconcile absolutism with Enlightenment philosophy.
Some reforms were promoted but did not fundamentally change anything. The characteristic phrase is, “Everything for the people, but without the people.”
The System of Utrecht
The System of Utrecht, established in 1714, effectively ended the War of Spanish Succession. In practice, it was a reorganization of relationships that established England’s hegemony. Its objectives were maintaining a delicate balance between the continental powers, neutralizing French power if possible, and establishing their dominance in the seas. The European balance was due to the appearance of new powers: Prussia and Russia.
18th Century Conflicts
Throughout the eighteenth century, the various powers allied in several wars of succession or colonial disputes.
Colonial Rivalry
Spain’s monarchical weakness and the strength of European economies fueled the rivalry for colonial possessions.
- The Netherlands occupied territories in Brazil and the Caribbean.
- England and France fought for territories in North America, the Caribbean, and the Indian territory, which held vast riches.
Mercantilism
Mercantilism prevailed in the second half of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It is an economic policy applied by European monarchies with the goal of national enrichment, based on:
- Accumulation of precious metals (gold and silver).
- Emphasis on foreign trade.
- Promotion of manufacturing. The intensification of these resulted in increased production.
- Protectionism: imposing customs duties to make foreign goods more expensive.
- Exploitation of raw materials and metals from the colonies, which were sent to the Metropolis.