Modernization and Crisis in Franco’s Spain
1. The Growth of the Sixties
Corrective action came with the Stabilization Plan (1959), adding economic and social development plans. The focus shifted to the industrial sector. Structural measures addressed industry shortcomings, fostering development and privatizing basic infrastructure. Industries producing fundamental goods and services consolidated as per capita income rose. Industrial growth, driven by technology and capital, improved productivity, lowered prices, increased wages, and boosted consumer demand. However, it limited job creation, leading to intense emigration due to uneven economic dynamics across regions. This explains the rural exodus and the emphasis on food production. It encouraged agricultural mechanization, further fueling emigration. Income diversification improved the demand for food. Industrial society consolidated through imports, absorbing surplus labor. Without tourism, remittances, and foreign investment, it wouldn’t have become an “economic miracle.” Spain’s per capita income remained far below European levels, with high inflation and low employment. The final stage saw increased activity in low-technology sectors, hindered by limited financial liberalization.
2. Modernization of Spanish Society
By 1970, the urban population reached 37%, transforming socio-professional structures. A large industrial workforce emerged, along with a growing “middle class.” Social behaviors and cultural guidelines changed. University student numbers increased, and families began to transform. Women’s incorporation into new activities remained weak. Homes acquired modern kitchens, and a new mentality gradually emerged. A sector of the Spanish Church began distancing itself from the regime.
3. Persistence of the Regime
Institutions modernized amidst tensions between Falangists and technocrats. Opus Dei, with Carrero Blanco and Lopez Rodó, strengthened their positions. The regime celebrated “25 Years of Peace” (1964) and enacted the Press Act (1966) under Manuel Fraga Iribarne. José Solís attempted to revitalize the Trade Union Organization. Juan Carlos de Borbón was designated as successor, ensuring continuity through monarchy. Dissension arose with the Matesa case (1969). The Burgos court-martial (1970) disrupted internal dynamics. Vatican II’s diffusion and social and political injustice fostered criticism of the dictatorship. Radical critiques emerged from Christian communities.
4. Strengthening of the Opposition
Social unrest and political protests emerged. The General Workers Union (socialist) and the National Confederation of Labor (anarcho-syndicalist) gained traction. New unionism arose with the Workers’ Commissions (1964), combining legal and illegal actions. Student organizations emerged, alongside new social movements and mass demonstrations against Franco. Christian Democrats, labeled by Franco as the “Munich collusion,” sought to engage the masses. Nationalist organizations gained ground. The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) maintained hegemony, but the emergence of ETA had the greatest impact. In Catalonia, the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (CDC) emerged as a nationalist force.
5. The Final Crisis of the Regime (1973-1975)
Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco fell victim to an ETA attack on December 20, 1973. Immobilists and reformists emerged. A new government formed under Carlos Arias Navarro. His February 12, 1974 speech to the Courts (February Spirit) proved significant. The system failed to democratize, confirming the permanence of the “Franco bunker.” Franco’s illness hampered his governance. In 1975, a new anti-terrorism law led to the death sentences of five ETA and FRAP activists, sparking international protests. The Polisario Front emerged in the Sahara, initiating the Green March. The regime’s final moments were palpable. On November 20, 1975, Franco died at 83.