Modernist Poets: Moore, Cummings, Hughes & Bishop Analysis
Marianne Moore (1887-1972)
A pioneering woman poet of the Modernist generation, Marianne Moore’s work is characterized by its impersonality and focus on language itself, treating words as tangible objects. Often considered a ‘poet’s poet,’ her work is known for its complex stanza patterns and experimentation with traditional forms. Moore did not reject rhyme, but used it sparingly, creating stanzas with unexpected shapes and varying lengths, often based on syllable counts. Her first book, “Poems,” was published in 1921, and she later served as editor of “Dial” from 1925 to 1929. Key works include “Observations” (1924) and “Selected Poems” (1935). Her language is marked by precise diction and an objective approach, aiming to connect language with lived experience. Her poems often incorporate observations, readings, and quotations, presented with a playful and witty tone, similar to Emily Dickinson’s style of image clusters.
A Grave, 1924
This poem opens with the words ‘man’ and ‘sea,’ evoking a romantic idea, but with a different approach than, for example, Robert Frost. The title itself provides crucial information, suggesting that the sea is not a source of truth but a grave. The poem references an experience at the seashore with her mother, where a man obscured their view. It explores the human tendency to see oneself as the center of the universe, comparing the sea to a grave, a place where one cannot remain without perishing. The poem uses a metaphor cluster, ’emerald turkey-foot,’ to describe the angle of poetry. The word ‘rapacious’ is used to describe how humans seek treasures from the sea, leading to destruction. The poem concludes with the image of something sinking slowly to death in the sea, powerless and unconscious.
The Fish, 1918-1924
This poem exemplifies Moore’s use of strange, yet consistently repeated stanzas. The syllables in each stanza follow a pattern: 1, 3, 4, 6, 9 (or 8). The rhyme scheme is also unique, with the first word of a line rhyming with the last word of the following line (e.g., wade/jade). This is a nonce form, an original form never used before. The poem seems to explore the relationship between water and rock, drawing parallels between the erosive action of water on rock and the effects of time on human faces. The poem describes the sea, its movement, and the interaction between water and rock, using rich vocabulary and imagery. The final stanzas reference time and the necessity of change for life.
The Student (1932-1941)
This poem addresses the issue of education in America, advocating for a democratic approach where the teacher is not an authority figure. It explores the nature of learning, suggesting that it is a natural process. The poem’s form is irregular but consistent, with stanzas of varying lengths. It discusses the relationship between knowledge and liberty, emphasizing that learning is a continuous process. The poem references Oliver G., and promotes self-reliance, encouraging readers to find their own answers. It concludes by suggesting that a student should not be a follower, but should study out of their own volition. The tone is objective and distant, reflecting Moore’s characteristic impersonality.
Bird-witted (1936-1941)
This poem explores the idea of intelligence as being ‘bird-witted,’ or having a small, quick mind. It describes a young, inexperienced baby bird learning to survive. The rhyme scheme is irregular, but present (ABABCA). The poem depicts the mother bird caring for her young, and the baby bird’s first attempts at flight. It also introduces a cat as a villain, contrasting the mother bird’s instinctual actions with the cat’s intelligence. The poem explores themes of motherhood, instinct, and the natural world.
E.E. Cummings
E.E. Cummings (1894-1962) was a highly experimental Modernist poet known for breaking traditional rules of grammar, syntax, and typography. His work is characterized by unconventional spacing, capitalization, and punctuation. He was also a painter. Cummings’ poetry often explores themes of individualism, love, nature, and the beauty of the everyday. His work is playful, whimsical, and spontaneous, reflecting his belief in the power of individual expression. He was critical of collective thinking and societal norms.
Thy fingers make early flowers of: 1923
This poem is a traditional love poem written in a non-traditional style. It uses the word ‘thy,’ which was uncommon in 1923. The poem consists of three stanzas with irregular line lengths but a consistent rhyme scheme. The first stanza compares the touch of the beloved to spring. The poem uses imagery of lightness and spring to describe the beloved, and concludes with the idea that possessing this woman is a great treasure.
O sweet spontaneous: 1920-1023
This poem references Walt Whitman and celebrates spontaneity and nature, particularly in relation to sex. The poem uses unconventional punctuation, with commas but no spaces after them. It criticizes philosophers, scientists, and religious figures for trying to control nature for their own purposes. The poem suggests that the answer to life and death is found in the natural world, specifically in spring.
In Just: 1929-1973
This poem is about the beginning of spring and the way the world becomes active. It uses repetition, particularly of the phrase ‘little lame balloonman,’ to create a sense of rhythm and movement. The poem describes the balloonman as lame, but also as a figure of joy and celebration. The poem uses imagery of mud and the sound of a whistle to evoke the feeling of spring. The poem also suggests a connection between childhood and sexuality.
If there are any heavens my mother will (all by herself) have: 1931
This poem explores the idea of death and the rejection of traditional notions of heaven. The poem uses unconventional formatting, with different margins for the text. It suggests that the speaker’s mother’s death has created an emptiness. The poem constructs a personal vision of heaven, where the speaker’s mother is surrounded by flowers. The poem is a celebration of love and a rejection of traditional religious ideas.
next to of course god america i: 1926
This poem is a critique of patriotic clichés and political rhetoric. It uses fragments of patriotic songs and speeches to create a collage effect. The poem is critical of the way language is used to manipulate and control people. It suggests that the old ways of speaking and writing poetry are no longer relevant.
Anyone lived in a pretty how town: 1949
This poem is a narrative poem that explores the life of an ordinary person in a small American town. The poem uses a musical rhythm and simple language to create a sense of familiarity. The poem repeats the phrase ‘a pretty how town’ and uses imagery of bells and churches. The poem explores themes of love, loss, and the passage of time. It suggests that poets are the only ones who understand the innocence of children.
Pity this busy monster, manunkind, 1944
This poem critiques the idea of progress and the belief that science can save humanity. The poem uses the term ‘manunkind’ to suggest that humans are unkind and monstrous. It suggests that progress is a disease that will ultimately kill us. The poem references the atomic bomb and the concept of curved space. It suggests that poets and artists are the only ones who can recognize the disease of progress.
I sing of Olaf glad and big, 1931
This poem is about Cummings’ experience in the army and is an anti-materialist poem. It tells the story of Olaf, a conscientious objector. The poem uses unconventional language and imagery to critique the military and the idea of patriotism. It is a parable of individual resistance against collective pressure.
Langston Hughes (1902-1967)
Langston Hughes was a prominent African-American poet of the Harlem Renaissance. His work is characterized by its use of blues and jazz rhythms, and its focus on the experiences of black people in America. Hughes sought to give voice to the African-American experience, addressing issues of racial injustice, pride, and identity. He was also a political activist and wrote plays, screenplays, and articles.
The Negro Speaks of Rivers, 1921-1926
This poem is a free verse poem that explores the history and heritage of African Americans. It uses the image of rivers to represent the deep roots of black culture and civilization. The poem uses repetition of the structure ‘I + verb’ and the word ‘rivers’ to create a sense of rhythm and connection. The poem references rivers in Africa, America, and Asia, highlighting the global reach of black history. The poem concludes with a reference to the soul, connecting the African-American experience to the transcendentalist tradition.
Dream Variations, 1924-1926
This poem is a variation on the traditional American dream, reflecting the more modest aspirations of African Americans. The poem uses repetition and imagery of light and dark to contrast the experiences of slaves and free people. The poem uses free verse, but also incorporates rhyme and musical rhythm. It explores the historical and personal experiences of African Americans.
Young Gal’s Blues, 1927 / Morning After, 1942
These poems are examples of Hughes’ use of jazz and blues rhythms. They illustrate the idea of laughter as a form of therapy. ‘Morning After’ uses the blues to describe the experience of a hangover, while ‘Young Gal’s Blues’ reflects on the passage of time.
Mulatto, 1927
This poem explores the complex issue of mulattos, children born from the sexual exploitation of black slaves by white masters. The poem uses multiple voices to create a sense of conflict and tension. The poem uses imagery of a falling temple to represent the changing social order. It also uses colors to describe the different races and the complex relationships between them.
Trumpet Player, 1947
This poem is about jazz and the experience of a trumpet player. It uses drugs as a metaphor for the escape from reality that music can provide. The poem explores the social pressures and the feelings of alienation that many people felt in the mid-20th century. The poem uses imagery of the moon and the color black to create a sense of mood and atmosphere. It suggests that art can transform suffering into beauty.
Dear Dr. Butts, 1953
This poem is a satirical letter to a black civil rights activist. It uses wordplay and humor to critique the social and political issues of the time. The poem is a mix of poetic, dramatic, autobiographical, and satirical elements.
Elizabeth Bishop (1911-1977)
Elizabeth Bishop was a poet known for her detailed observations, sense of exile, and exploration of place. Her work is characterized by its variety of forms, including traditional forms and free verse. She was influenced by Marianne Moore and admired Charles Darwin. Her poetry often explores the contrast between the self and the ‘otherness’ of the world. She was a chronic ‘misplaced person’ due to her childhood experiences and her travels.
The Unbeliever
This poem is a surrealistic exploration of a dream. It is open to multiple interpretations and lacks complete coherence. The poem uses repetition and free association to create a sense of dreamlike imagery. It explores the question of belief and the desire to remain in a dream state.
The Armadillo 1965
This poem is structured in four-line stanzas with a consistent rhyme scheme. It was written in Brazil and is a response to Robert Lowell’s poem ‘Skunk Hour.’ The poem describes a celebration of San Juan, with balloons and lights in the sky. It explores the contrast between beauty and terror, and the vulnerability of animals in the face of human actions. The poem concludes with an image of the armadillo, which is interpreted as a symbol of both defense and ignorance.
In the waiting room 1976
This poem is a long free-verse poem with short lines. It is a memory poem that explores the moment when the speaker realized her own individuality. The poem uses detailed descriptions of a waiting room and photographs to create a sense of atmosphere. It explores themes of otherness, alienation, and the process of differentiation. The poem concludes with the speaker’s realization that she is a separate individual, named Elizabeth.
One art 1976
This poem is a villanelle, a complex form with a repetitive structure. The poem explores the art of losing, suggesting that loss is a fundamental part of life. The poem begins with insignificant losses and gradually moves to more significant ones, culminating in the loss of a loved one. The poem suggests that the art of losing is connected to the art of writing, and that poetry can be a form of therapy. The poem moves from an objective tone to a subjective and personal one, reflecting the speaker’s emotional state.