Modernism in Spanish Literature: Machado and Jiménez
Modernism: A Literary Movement
Modernism, a literary movement of the early twentieth century, coexists with the Generation of ’98. The *noventayochistas* (members of the Generation of ’98) and Modernists have opposing features, despite sharing the Modernist ideology. Aestheticism (art for art’s sake) is central to the Modernist writer; literature should not have practical utility, and art should be amoral. Their motto is “Art for Art’s Sake,” and they defend the independence of literature from politics and any ideology, except for the aesthetic. The sole objective of literature is the creation of beauty.
Modernism has French origins and is the Spanish version of the Symbolist movement, which developed in Paris. The key French Symbolists were Charles Baudelaire, Paul Verlaine, and Arthur Rimbaud. Charles Baudelaire wrote three influential books:
- “The Flowers of Evil”: Buries Romantic idealism.
- “Artificial Paradises”: Claims that one must write under the influence of alcohol and narcotics.
- “Paris Spleen”: Features no metric or rhyme scheme.
The Modernist writer is a Bohemian, a self-marginalized individual who defies all social conventions. The most important Spanish Modernist writers are Antonio Machado, Manuel Machado, Juan Ramón Jiménez, and Francisco Villaespesa. Rubén Darío was the first Modernist writer in the Spanish language. His first book was “Azul…” (“Blue…”). Ten years later, in 1898, in the wake of the Spanish-American War, he visited Spain and taught his Symbolist poems to writers who had lived in Paris. The favorite genres of Modernism are lyric poetry and theater, as opposed to the Generation of ’98’s preference for the novel and essay.
Antonio Machado
In 1903, Antonio Machado published his first book, titled “Soledades” (“Solitudes”). This book closely followed the Modernism of Rubén Darío. A second part was entitled “Soledades, Galerías y Otros Poemas” (“Solitudes, Galleries, and Other Poems”). In 1907, in this second edition, Machado removed the *rubenianos* (elements reminiscent of Rubén Darío) problems. 1907 is a key year for Spanish poetry of the twentieth century because it marks a break with Hispanic Modernism’s imitation of Rubén Darío and also with the new French symbolism. This new symbolism takes Bécquer and Rosalía de Castro as models, and literature becomes more personal and philosophical.
In 1907, Unamuno published “Poesía” and diverted attention from Rubén Darío to find a Hispanic poetic expression and modernity, while no longer imitating French Symbolism. The “galleries of the soul” are interior corridors through which the author explores his own mind. Machado became interested in those years in the philosophical current of solipsism. Solipsism is a philosophical doctrine established by the extreme empiricist philosopher Berkeley. In 1912, he published his most successful book, “Campos de Castilla” (“Fields of Castile”). This book marked two major shifts in the author’s trajectory:
- A change in his philosophy led him to break his isolation and open himself to the outside world.
- Machado began to write *regeneracionista* (regenerationist) and aesthetic poetry. Machado began to write poetry on political issues.
In 1911, Machado traveled to Paris to attend a philosophy course taught by Henri Bergson. Machado wrote that poetry was “the word in time.” This means that lyrical inspiration comes from the anxiety caused by the passage of time. A person’s stay is temporary, and literature and memories make the person come back.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Juan Ramón Jiménez published “Ninfeas” (“Nympheas”) and “Almas de Violeta” (“Souls of Violet”) in 1900. These two books constitute the initial phase of his poetry, imitating Rubén Darío. Jiménez later repented of these two books and was known for burning copies of his early works. He began imitating French Symbolist Modernism. In the second phase, he refined the French Symbolism and followed Rosalía de Castro and Bécquer. His most important book is “Diario de un poeta recién casado” (“Diary of a Newly Married Poet”). This book develops free verse and defines the prose poem. In addition, Jiménez developed the concept of “pure poetry,” which is key to understanding the poetry of the Generation of ’27. Pure poetry is poetry with a philosophical theme where there is nothing autobiographical about the author and where there are only beautiful ideas and images. Some poets, like Federico García Lorca, began writing poetry in imitation of Jiménez.
In his final stage, after the Civil War of 1936, Jiménez believed that he had finally found a true language. In this final phase, he turned to poetry as his religion and used the resources of San Juan de la Cruz.