Modernism in Spanish Literature: A Renewal of Lyric
Modernism: A Literary Renewal
Late 19th-Century Context
During the latter part of the 19th century, Western society was deeply entrenched in capitalist ideals, prioritizing pragmatism and utilitarianism. However, this did not lead to a more just or equitable world, resulting in a crisis that permeated various fields, including art, science, and philosophy. Irrationalist doctrines gained traction, leading artists to rebel against bourgeois society. They sought refuge in art as a means of self-expression, but this path sometimes led to self-destruction, as seen in figures like Baudelaire and Verlaine.
This climate gave rise to three major artistic and literary currents:
- Impressionism: Focused on the subjective perception of reality and the passage of time.
- Aestheticism: Viewed art as a model for life, emphasizing artifice, the sublimation of beauty, and a rejection of ugliness. The bohemian lifestyle, a stark contrast to the orderly bourgeois existence, became an ideal.
- Decadence: Encompassed the retreat of artists into hedonism, seeking pleasure as the ultimate goal, often as a response to the perceived meaninglessness of life.
French Influence and the Birth of New Movements
French influence, particularly Parisian life, played a crucial role in the arts, especially poetry. Two movements emerged that would significantly impact the renewal of lyric:
- Parnassianism: Championed the idea of “art for art’s sake.” It sought an objective form of poetry devoid of personal feelings or ideas, focusing solely on pure beauty.
- Symbolism: Emphasized suggestion and intuition as the building blocks of poetry. The symbol became central, as it was believed to be the only means of conveying the poet’s emotional state.
Modernism in Spain
Modernism, a literary movement flourishing between 1885 and 1915, was characterized by aestheticism and escapism. It emerged as a reaction against the dominance of the new oligarchy and the materialistic values of the bourgeoisie. In Spain, it represented a subversive force, reaching its pinnacle with the Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío. Spanish Modernism also reflected a rejection of bourgeois norms and became a way of life rather than just a literary style.
Key Characteristics of Spanish Modernism
- The Intimacy of the Poet: Personal experiences and emotions served as the foundation for artistic creation.
- Aestheticism: The pursuit of absolute beauty was the primary aim of art.
- Escapism: Artists sought refuge in distant lands, exotic cultures, or bygone eras, particularly classical antiquity.
- Cosmopolitanism: Paris became a haven for Modernist artists, reflecting their desire to transcend national boundaries.
- Love and Eroticism: Modernist poetry explored both melancholic, unrequited love and unrestrained eroticism, sometimes as a vital passion, sometimes as a provocation against bourgeois morality.
- Hispanic Identity: In the later stages of Modernism, particularly in Darío’s work, there was a growing emphasis on Hispanic themes and social concerns.
Stylistic Innovations
Spanish Modernism reflected a yearning for harmony, perfection, and beauty, with a strong emphasis on sensory experience. It brought about significant stylistic and metrical innovations. The use of adjectives to evoke emotions and create lavish imagery became prominent. Color, sound, and musicality were employed to suggest and embellish. Synesthesia and vivid imagery were frequently used. Modernist poets experimented with diverse rhythms but favored the Alexandrine verse and the sonnet form.
Influence of Bécquer
Spanish Modernism was notably influenced by the Romantic poet Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer, whose work emphasized intimacy and sentimentality. This influence led to a greater degree of subjectivity and introspection in Modernist poetry. Exotic settings were often replaced with melancholic landscapes, reflecting the enduring theme of melancholy inherited from Bécquer.
Key Figures in Spanish Modernism
While Rueda and Villaespesa were early proponents of Modernism in Spain, its most prominent figures were Valle-Inclán (in narrative and drama) and the poets Juan Ramón Jiménez and Antonio Machado. However, both Jiménez and Machado eventually moved towards a more personal and less purely aesthetic style of poetry.
Rubén Darío
Rubén Darío was the most influential figure in the Modernist movement. His work evolved from the full-fledged Modernism of Azul (his first work, showcasing the influence of French Symbolism and exotic themes) to a deeper awareness of the human condition within the universe, culminating in the brilliant poem “Lo fatal.” Prosas profanas continued to explore exoticism, refinement, and fantasy. Cantos de vida y esperanza marked a shift towards introspection, exploring the meaning of life and Hispanic themes.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
For Juan Ramón Jiménez, the roles of man and poet were intertwined. His life was his poetry, and his poetry was his life. His extensive poetic work was a constant pursuit of beauty. His early poems reflected aesthetic and decadent tendencies, exploring themes of nostalgia, the search for the mysterious, impossible worlds, and the haunting presence of death. Symbolism became evident in his subsequent works, Arias tristes and Jardines lejanos. The theme of the search for the mysterious persisted but was expressed through feelings, visions, and memories. Jardines lejanos also incorporated the theme of erotic conflict. Hojas verdes showcased the strongest influence of Modernism, particularly in its inclusion of Orientalist elements.
Jiménez’s retirement to his native Moguer marked a shift in his poetry towards a process of purification and refinement. This led him to embrace “pure poetry,” where poetry became the essence of human existence and beauty was identified with divinity and the absolute.
Antonio Machado
Like other Modernist poets, Antonio Machado initially embraced Modernism but later evolved towards a more intimate style that focused on the individual and social aspects of human experience. He soon departed from Modernism. With the publication of Soledades, Galerías (1907), he revised his earlier collection, Soledades (1903), which he deemed too ornate, musical, and external. Time, sleep, love, nostalgia, and melancholy became central themes in Machado’s poetry. While Symbolism influenced his work, his poetry was deeply imbued with symbols: water, fountains, evening, etc.
Conclusion
Spanish Modernism represented a significant renewal of lyric poetry, characterized by its emphasis on aestheticism, escapism, and the exploration of inner worlds. It brought about stylistic innovations and a renewed focus on sensory experience. While influenced by French movements like Symbolism, Spanish Modernism developed its unique characteristics, drawing inspiration from figures like Bécquer and producing major poets like Rubén Darío, Juan Ramón Jiménez, and Antonio Machado, each contributing to the richness and diversity of this transformative literary period.