Modernism & Generation of ’98: A Literary Analysis
Modernism and the Generation of ’98: The Lyric
Historical Context
From the late 19th century, growing intellectual and popular criticism of Restoration politics, intensified by the loss of the colonies, led intellectuals to identify 1898 with decline and pessimism.
Cultural Crisis of the Fin de Siècle
Spiritual disorientation associated with nascent existentialism manifested in Europe and Spain. This concern is reflected in Modernism and the Generation of ’98, which shared social, political, artistic, and ethical traits.
Modernism
A rebellious attitude and eagerness to renew all fields of life and art characterized Modernism. Its relation to bohemianism implied a rejection of social and moral norms.
Modern Literature
Expressed primarily through poetry, modern literature featured diverse influences, from Romanticism to French and American Modernism. Key characteristics included:
- Romantic roots
- Rejection of realism
- Existential concerns
- Art Nouveau influences
- Phonic resources
- Learned words
- Suggestive symbols
- Synesthesia
Generation of ’98
This group of writers expressed youthful displeasure at the need for restoration and proclaimed social, political, and cultural renewal. Unamuno, Darío, Baroja, Azorín, and Machado comprised this group, although the existence of this generation as a unified entity has been debated.
Key Features
- Influenced by thinkers like Larra and the Regenerationist movement
- Evolution from radical youth to conservative adulthood
- Initial social and ethical complaints
- Focus on defining Spanish identity
- Reflection of the fin de siècle crisis in existential concerns
- Aesthetic simplicity
- Emphasis on essays
Rubén Darío (Nicaragua, 1867-1916)
Modernism reached its peak with Darío. A Nicaraguan journalist and diplomat, he visited Spain, connected with Spanish poets, and encountered French poetry in Paris. He lived a bohemian life and died in his home country.
Darío’s Work
Darío synthesized American and European Modernism, particularly Parnassianism.
- First Stage: Azul (1888) and Prosas Profanas (1896) showcased American Modernism with brilliant cosmopolitan and pagan themes, dazzling sensuality, vitalism, fantasy, and aristocratic levity.
- Second Stage: After a second trip to Spain, Cantos de Vida y Esperanza (1905) revealed greater concern for human content, combining Spanish motifs akin to the Generation of ’98 with other evasive poetic themes.
Antonio Machado
Life
Born in Seville to a cultured, liberal family, Machado experienced a bohemian youth alongside his brother Manuel. He traveled to Paris, worked as a French teacher in Soria, where he married Leonor, who later died. He then moved to Baeza, Segovia, and finally Madrid. A supporter of the Republic, he died in exile. His later years were marked by his relationship with Guiomar.
Work
Machado’s lyric evolved from Modernism to new forms of expression.
- First Stage: Soledades (1903) and Soledades, Galerías y Otros Poemas (1907) displayed Symbolist and Modernist influences, expressing intimate feelings of sadness, weariness, and longing. He engaged in dialogues with himself and interpreted natural symbols, acting as a poet-medium. “Galerías” explored memories and ghostly atmospheres with a simple, sensorial style and flexible metrics.
- Second Stage: Campos de Castilla (1912) marked a shift towards a historical perspective. The landscape of Soria became a reflection of Castile and, by extension, Spain. Reflective poems with archaic words evoked Castile’s epic past. The collection also included poems about Leonor and Andalusia, as well as ironic social criticism.
- Third Stage: Nuevas Canciones (1924) and Proverbios y Cantares featured popular song forms and recurring themes. Canciones a Guiomar comprised love poems, and Poesías de la Guerra addressed the Spanish Civil War.
Juan Ramón Jiménez
Life
Born in Huelva, the landscape played a significant role in his work. He moved to Madrid, where he was hailed as a new Modernist poet. His father’s death marked a turning point. In 1916, he married Zenobia Camprubí, whose presence influenced his work. Exiled during the Republic, he lived in Puerto Rico, won the Nobel Prize in 1956, and died in 1958.
Work
A contemporary of Machado and Unamuno, Jiménez linked the Generation of ’98 and the Generation of ’27, who considered him a mentor. His poetry sought beauty, eternity, and knowledge, reflecting his belief in the poet as a medium who sees beyond appearances. He dedicated his work to “the minority always” and “the vast minority.” His pursuit of perfection is evident in his refined style.
Background: Pure Poetry
Jiménez’s intellectual and challenging pure poetry is also known as hermetic poetry. In 1918, he outlined four stages of his poetic evolution: innocent poetry, ornamental poetry, naked poetry, and true poetry.
Stages of Jiménez’s Work
- Sensory or Modernist Stage: Rimas, Arias Tristes, and Jardines Lejanos reflect Bécquer’s influence with intimate, simple, musical, and melancholic tones.
- Intellectual or Pure Poetry Stage: Jiménez stripped his language of ornamentation, focusing on essence. This resulted in a simple yet difficult, abstract, and metaphysical style, exemplified by Diario de un Poeta Recién Casado.
- True Poetry Stage: During exile, he wrote La Estación Total (1946), which includes Espacio, a work close to surrealism. Animal de Fondo (1949) and Ríos que se Van (1962) explore nature, love, and death with a smooth, colorful style.
Traditional Poetry and Prose
Jiménez combined experimentation with traditional forms like romances. His prose ranged from the poetic prose of Platero y yo to critical prose and portraits.