Modernism and the Generation of ’98
1. Historical Situation
The Dawn of the 20th Century
The twentieth century began under the influence of the Industrial Revolution that swept through Europe. The new modes of production led to the proletarianization of large segments of the population and increased social inequalities, driving the development of various social doctrines, including anarchism, socialism, and communism.
These ideologies contributed to the triumph of the October Revolution in 1917. This process was fueled by political alliances and confrontations that ultimately paved the way for the most significant event in Europe during the early decades of the twentieth century.
Spain at the Turn of the Century
In Spain, the final years of the nineteenth century were a time of reflection and criticism following one of the most turbulent periods in its history. Among intellectuals, there was a debate about Spain as a nation and the causes of its perceived decline. The so-called Disaster of ’98, which resulted in the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines (Spain’s last overseas colonies), heightened the sense of crisis with which the country entered the twentieth century.
2. Modernism
Overview
Modernism can be broadly characterized by two stages. The first emphasizes a precious cult of form, a strong-willed style, refined and aristocratic tendencies, and a penchant for personal lyricism, exploring the mysteries of life and death and seeking to capture the essence of the land.
In one instance, the American lands feature prominently in the works of most Spanish American poets. In another, specifically Spanish instance, symbolized by Castile, poets delve into its historical and lyrical spirit, seeking its intrahistorical essence. This is evident in the works of the Machado brothers, Unamuno, and Azorín.
It’s important to acknowledge that some American poets, like Rubén Darío, also explored the Hispanic roots of their lands and considered the historical and artistic content of Spain itself.
A notable characteristic of Modernism is the bold use of new vocabulary, drawn from multiple sources, ranging from foreign languages (both ancient and modern) to technical terms from the arts, crafts, rural environments, and etymological origins.
2.1 Characteristics of Modernism
- Cosmopolitanism: Influences from other countries.
- Dominance of verse.
- Focus on creating beauty.
- Interest in exotic and mythological themes.
- Refined and aristocratic style.
- Abundance of rhetorical devices.
- Invention of new words and use of cultisms.
- Imprecision and vagueness.
2.2 The Metric of Modernism
The metric undergoes a renovation manifested in:
- Meter: It restores the Alexandrine verse, introduces meters like the French eneasílabo, expands the use of dodecasyllabic verse, and mixes different meters.
- Verse: It modifies traditional verse forms or invents new ones, such as dodecasyllabic quintets or sonnets with low art.
- Rhythm: One of the greatest achievements of modernist poetry. It is achieved by distributing stresses and pauses according to the desired effect. Enjambment is also frequently used.
- Rhyme and Assonance: Modernist poets use consonant rhyme, assonance, and free verse.
2.3 Themes
The themes of Modernism revolve around:
- Escapism: A desire to escape from everyday reality, leading to settings in exotic and idealized locations like Eastern countries, lost tropics, castles, and autumnal gardens.
- Focus on the Distant Past: Stories often center on classical Greece or the Middle Ages.
- Predilection for Mythological and Legendary Themes: Works feature nymphs, centaurs, satyrs, gods, heroes, and beautiful princesses.
- Sentimentality and Melancholy: These emotions are expressed not only as moods but also as reflections in objects and settings, such as a melancholy afternoon, life as eternal sea foam, or a poor tree. The poet expresses their inner world through these elements.
2.4 Authors
2.4.1 Rubén Darío
2.4.2 Spanish Authors
Manuel Machado
3. Generation of ’98
Relationship with Modernism
Modernism is a broad literary and cultural movement within which the Generation of ’98 emerges as a distinct phenomenon. It’s a diverse movement, not a parallel group or, as some believe, a literary reaction against Modernism. When referring to the literary-cultural movement, we generally speak of Modernism, and we only specify ’98 to highlight its particular historical and literary significance.
3.1 Characteristics of the Generation of ’98
- Authors primarily from the periphery of Spain, but most residing in Castile.
- Prevalence of prose.
- Objective to analyze reality.
- Interest in social and political issues.
- Sober and austere style.
- Lack of rhetorical flourishes.
- Retrieval of localisms and archaisms.
- Precision and accuracy.
3.2 Themes
The literary production of the Generation of ’98 presents a range of themes reflecting their authors’ personalities.
- The Problem of Spain: Rejection of the socio-cultural, economic, and political circumstances and a desire for reform, but from an idealistic perspective.
- Focus of Interests:
- Landscape: Especially the Castilian landscape, through which they aim to discover “the soul of Spain.” They believe Castile is the heart of the nation.
- History: They are drawn to both great deeds and historical figures, as well as anonymous individuals whose daily work shapes the homeland.
- Literature: They admire medieval and classical literature, including Berceo, the Archpriest of Hita, La Celestina, and show a particular interest in Don Quixote.
- Existential Problems: The meaning of life, ethics, morals, and religious beliefs are also important themes.
3.3 Authors
- Miguel de Unamuno
- Pío Baroja
- Azorín
- Antonio Machado
- Ramón María del Valle-Inclán