Modern Philosophy: Origins, Movements, and Key Thinkers
Modern Philosophy: Foundations and Key Eras
The Dawn of Modern Thought: The Renaissance (14th-16th Centuries)
The modern age commenced with a transitional period known as the Renaissance. Emerging in Italy at the end of the 14th century, this movement of renewal and change primarily unfolded throughout the 15th and 16th centuries. These transformations manifested in a new way of understanding the human being, known as humanism, and a new approach to studying nature, leading to modern science. This new science involved using a novel method: the hypothetical-deductive method. Additionally, political science also emerged during this era.
Humanism and the Scientific Revolution
The term humanism designates a group of authors who focused on an anthropocentric vision of reality. The human being was placed at the center of reflection; humanity understood itself as responsible for its own destiny, extolling reason as the specific feature that grants autonomy. Concurrently, they discovered the objectivity of nature, which could be understood through theoretical and practical knowledge of its laws, placing them in the service of humanity.
This period saw the development of the Scientific Revolution (with key figures like Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton), whose efforts were directed toward the direct observation of nature and the application of mathematics. They sought to replace certain metaphysical and philosophical principles. Their work profoundly influenced the emergence and development of modern science, including the conception of the universe as an infinite system, the heliocentric theory, and the mechanistic model of physical laws. However, modern science would not have been possible without the experimental hypothetical-deductive method, provided by Galileo. This method opened the door to finding a single explanation for the entire universe through the development of mathematics and the implementation of observation and experimentation in the study of nature. This grand synthesis was not fully accomplished until Newton’s formulation of the principle of universal gravitation.
The 17th Century: Crisis, Rationalism, and Empiricism
After a period of hope, the Renaissance was succeeded by a time of crisis and instability. The 17th century was a period of instability and restlessness, seeking solutions to the political, economic, and religious issues affecting Europe. Ideologically, a “spiritual crisis” manifested itself in the progress of the scientific spirit and the exaltation of reason.
During this century, Rationalism emerged as a result of the problem arising from the need for certainty, which required investigating the origin of knowledge. Initiated by Descartes and continued by Spinoza and Leibniz, Rationalists focused their concerns on the issue of knowledge. They sought truth solely through reason, often dismissing the senses and empirical experience. Rationalists posited the existence of innate ideas and viewed mathematics as the model for all knowledge.
As a reaction to Rationalism, another significant wave of modernity began in the same century: English Empiricism (with key figures like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume). Empiricists asserted that all our knowledge originates from experience, and experience defines both the origin and limits of our understanding. Experience, they argued, is the means to attain truth in ethical, political, or religious matters.
The 18th Century: The Enlightenment and the Triumph of Reason
In the 18th century, the full implications of the new spirit from the 16th and 17th centuries became apparent. This was the Enlightenment, often called the “Age of Reason” or “Age of Optimism,” celebrating human reason. Thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot were central figures. Scientific breakthroughs fostered unbounded confidence in the progress of humanity.
The concepts of progress, humanity, dignity, freedom, nature, and reason became the core values of the Enlightenment. Among these, human reason was the key concept. Enlightenment thinkers believed it should not be subjected to any higher authority, as reason was considered common to all people and all times, and should be used to its full capacity. The perceived difference between the civilized and the primitive lay in the different use made of reason, highlighting the importance of education.