Miguel Primo de Rivera’s Dictatorship in Spain: 1923-1930
The Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
In 1923, the Restoration regime came to an end when, on September 13th, General Miguel Primo de Rivera led a military coup.
Circumstances Leading to the Dictatorship
Deterioration of the Parliamentary System: The parliamentary system was discredited by continuous electoral fraud. Spain entered a revolutionary phase, witnessing the final breakdown of the system of Canovas, which could no longer control the situation.
Social Problems: Between 1917 and 1923, Spain experienced years of intense social unrest as prices continued to rise, resulting in a weak market and a paralysis of industrial activity. This led to increasing social unrest.
Clashes Between Employers and Unions: Employers and unions radicalized their positions:
In rural areas, workers were influenced by the actions of the CNT (National Confederation of Labor).
Employers organized to defend their interests, creating employers’ federations.
These situations caused fear among the wealthy.
Resurgence of Militarism: The war in Morocco and the disaster of Annual created tension in the army and public opinion, leading to calls for accountability. Other factors included:
The influence of African military personnel on initiatives to be taken in Morocco.
The influence of republicanism and nationalism.
The fear of excessive democratization of Spain.
Street Violence: Street violence, led by anarchists and criminals, escalated, culminating in the assassination of the Head of Government, Eduardo Dato, by three anarchists.
In this situation, Primo de Rivera pronounced his coup with his troops on September 13, 1923. In his opening statement, he clarified that the coup was not directed against the monarchy but against political parties unable to maintain order. He claimed that his new government would have a transitional character and promised to end terrorism, separatist agitation, disorder, and the political use of the War of Morocco. The king ordered Primo de Rivera to form a government on September 14, making him partly responsible for the implementation of the dictatorship in Spain.
Reasons for the Coup’s Success
Support from Key Institutions: The coup received support from the king, the army, and the Church.
Support from Conservative Sectors: Conservative sectors, the Catalan bourgeoisie, entrepreneurs, employers, and some conservative intellectuals saw the coup as a solution to end the country’s ills.
Fatigue and Hope for Reforms: After years of strikes and with a relative improvement in living conditions, the unions did not oppose the coup. They also hoped that it might lead to reforms in their favor.
Phases of the Dictatorship
The Military Directory (1923-1925)
This government was formed by Primo de Rivera as president and nine members, all military. Its aim was to achieve social peace, public order, and an arrangement of the various administrations. The steps taken were:
Ending the Old Political System: The Parliament was dissolved by decree, political parties were suspended, constitutional guarantees were revoked, and press censorship was established.
Creation of Joint Committees: Joint committees composed of workers and employers were formed, gathering in large corporations. They were an effective instrument in regulating labor disputes, working conditions, and mediation and arbitration in case of conflict. Therefore, they had the support of the PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers’ Party) and UGT (General Union of Workers). Worker benefits emerged from these contacts with the UGT.
Local Administration Reform: The Municipal Statute, drafted by Calvo Sotelo, gave municipalities broad financial autonomy. Councils were dissolved and replaced by boards composed of the largest contributors in each locality, appointed by military governors.
Empowerment of Military Governors: Power was given to military governors, and the National Militia was established.
Suppression of Regionalism: Primo de Rivera equated regionalism with separatism, rejecting and dismissing any formula of autonomy.
Establishment of a One-Party System: A clear one-party system with fascist influence was established: The Patriotic Union.
Foreign Policy:
Priority was given to ending the war with Morocco, which became the regime’s great success. Political and military coordination with France resulted in the landing of Alhucemas in 1925, finally defeating the leader of the Berber tribes. Sanjurjo, Kindelan, and Francisco Franco were notable figures in this military operation.
Diplomatic rapprochement with other countries, especially Latin America, culminated in the Ibero-American Exposition in Seville in 1929.
The Civil Directory (1925-1930)
In this stage, the government was formed by technocrats, including Calvo Sotelo and Conde de Guadalhorce. Among the measures undertaken were:
Formation of a National Assembly: A National Assembly composed of 400 members was formed, some elected and others by their own right. They were responsible for drafting a constitution. This constitution produced widespread discontent and was rejected for not having the support of the crown.
Interventionist Economic Policy: An interventionist economic policy was implemented, raising tariffs and encouraging domestic industry. This resulted in:
The rise of monopolies.
Increased output in basic industries and energy sources. Calvo Sotelo promoted the oil monopoly by creating CAMPSA.
The Conde de Guadalhorce attempted to achieve an autarkic economy through a strong protectionist policy of import tariffs.
Development of reservoirs, a hydraulic plan, channels, modernization of railways, and rural electrification.
Bank concentration that favored the elite formed by the Central Bank, the Hispanic American, Spanish Credit, etc.
Growing Opposition and the End of the Dictatorship
Between 1928 and 1929, opposition to the regime increased, exacerbated by social problems caused by the global economic crisis:
Political Parties: Political parties refused to cooperate with the Dictator. Republicans organized the Republican Alliance, and Catalan nationalists strongly opposed Primo de Rivera’s measures.
Anarchists and Socialists: The anarchists, through the CNT, opposed the regime. The PSOE changed its position and favored the Republic.
Intellectuals: Intellectuals never sympathized with the system and constantly criticized it. Many went into exile, promoting campaigns against the dictator and the king.
Universities: Universities were tightly controlled by the dictatorship.
The Army: The army began to distance itself from the civilian board due to training and reforms in the artillery.
Conservative Sectors: Conservative sectors of business, banking, and even the Church opposed the regime.
King Alfonso XIII: The king himself grew wary of the dictator’s particularism and his opinion towards him.
The 1929 depression further destabilized the regime. The stability of the dictatorship had attracted foreign capital, strengthening the peseta. However, the crash of 1929 forced American and European banks to withdraw their money, causing the currency to collapse.
In this situation, Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930, and Alfonso XIII accepted his resignation. He was exiled to France and died in Paris a month and a half later. The king instructed Damaso Berenguer to form a new government. Berenguer sought a return to constitutional normality. A year later, he was replaced by Juan Bautista Aznar, who called elections that would give victory to the Republic.
Many Spaniards saw the dictatorship as a time of social peace, prosperity, and good roads, which ended the war in Morocco, achieved a balanced budget, and implemented tax reform on an equitable basis.
Even so, the dictatorship did not please all sectors and did not end the political and social deterioration of Spain, ultimately leading to the end of the monarchy.