Middle age peninsular kingdoms
His2riography/His2riography is d study of his2ry of his2ry writing. D main “characters” in dat s2ry R his2rians & their texts. It is like examining d process U 2ok with writing an essay. D author is now under d microscope/ Renaissance Modern Age in Europe begins with d Renaissance, which means rebirth. D term is used by scholars 2 describe d period beginning in Italy about 1350 & in d rest of Europe after 1450 & dat it lasted til about 1620. It was a his2rical era with distinctive themes in learning, politics, literature, art, religion, social life, & music.Italian intellectuals of d l8 4teenth & d early fifteenth centuries used d term rinascità (‘rebirth or renaissance’) 2 describe their own age as 1 in which learning, literature, & d arts were reborn after a long, dark Middle Ages.Scholastic philosophy, which d Italian humanists rejected, & a different style of L8n writing, which d humanists viewed as uncouth & barbarous, prevailed in d Middle Ages. But Italian humanists believed dat a new age was dawning. In d view of d humanists, d painter Giot2 (d. 1337) & d vernacular writer & early humanist Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) led d rebirth or Renaissance. Most Italian intellectuals frm d mid-fifteenth century on held these views./Humanism was d defining intellectual movement of d Renaissance. It was based on d belief dat d literary, scientific, & philosophical works of ancient Greece & Rome provided d best guides 4 learning & living. & humanists believed dat d New Testament & early Christian authors offered d best spiritual advice. 9teenth century invented d term “humanism.” But humanism is based on 3 Renaissance terms. Studia humanit8s meant humanistic studies, which were grammar, rhe2ric, poetry, his2ry, & moral philosophy based on study of d standard ancient authors of Rome &, 2 a lesser extent, Greece. Dis is d famous definition presented in 1945 by d eminent his2rian Paul Oscar Kristeller (1905–1999) & now widely accepted.1400 a # of Italian pedagogical leaders decided dat d traditional medieval curriculum 4 L8n schools, consisting of studying medieval authors & a few ancient poetic classics, or portions of dem, & learning 2 write 4mal letters in L8n according 2 nonclassical rules, was inadequ8. Pier Paolo Vergerio (c. 1368–1444) wrote d 1st & most important humanist pedagogical tre8se, called De Ingenuis Moribus et Liberalibus Studiis Adulescentiae (On noble cus2ms & liberal studies of adolescents) in 1402 or 1403. He argued dat d best way 2 foster gud character, learning, & an eloquent L8n style in speech & writing was 2 teach humanistic studies. He gave pride of place 2 his2ry, moral philosophy, & eloquence, a novel emphasis. Boys trained in humanistic studies would b ready 2 become honorable leaders in society as adults./d Gutenberg Press Goldsmith & inven2r Johannes Gutenberg was a political exile frm Mainz, Germany wen he began experimenting with printing in Strasbourg, France in 1440. He returned 2 Mainz several years l8r & by 1450, had a printing machine perfected & ready 2 use commercially: d Gutenberg press.A process 4 mass-producing movable type; d use of oil-based ink 4 printing books; adjustable molds; mechanical movable type; & d invention of a wooden printing press simila/ d age of explor8on Everyday food 4 d poor in d Middle Ages consisted of cabbage, beans, eggs, oats & brown bread. Sometimes, as a specialty, dey would have cheese, bacon or poultry. Available fruits & vegetables included apples, pears, grapes, carrots, onions, & pomegran8s. These would have been fairly expensive. Available herbs & spices were salt, mustard, sage, parsley, & dill. 1 of d major motiv8ng fac2rs in d European Age of Explor8on was d search 4 direct access 2 d highly lucr8ve Eastern spice trade. In d 15th century, spices came 2 Europe via d Middle East land & sea routes, & spices were in huge demand both 4 food dishes & 4 use in medicines. D problem was how 2 access dis market by sea.Spices, despite their cost, were used in gr8 quantities. Sacks of spices were required 4 royal banquets & weddings, & we know, 4 example, dat in d 15th century, d household of d Duke of Buckingham in England went thru 2 pounds (900 grammes) of spice evry day, mostly pepper & ginger.Look 4 new trade routes & spread religion. D effects of d Age of Explor8on were slavery & disease492, Chris2pher Columbus thought he could find it by sailing west across d Atlantic Ocean but he only succeeded in finding another landmass in his way: d Americas. D Portuguese believed dey could find Asia by sailing around d African continent. In 1488 Bar2lomeu Dias sailed down d coast of West Africa & made d 1st voyage around d Cape of gud Hope, d southern tip of d African continent (now South Africa). He was followed by Vasco da Gama who, in 1497-9, also rounded d Cape but then sailed on up d coast of East Africa & crossed d Indian ocean 2 reach Calicut (now Kozhikode) on d Malabar Coast of southern India. Finally, d Europeans had found a direct maritime route 2 d riches of d East/ d Americas 1992, Europeans & Settlers in North America celebr8d d 500 year anniversary of Columbus’ 1st voyage frm an “old” world 2 “new”. Conventional his2ry, written by d winners, hs always taught us dat dis “discovery” was 1 of mankind’s finest hours. D inhabitants of d Americas saw it differently. Their ances2rs had made d discovery long be4. 2 dem d New World was so old it was d only world: a “gr8 island,” as many called it. Dey had occupied ol habitable z1s frm d Arctic tundra 2 d Carribean Isles, frm d hi pl8aus of d Andes 2 d tip of Cape Horn.Indigenous peoples had developed evry kind of society, nomadic hunting groups, settled farming communities, & dazzling civiliz8ons with cities as large as ne then on Earth. By 1492 there were approx. 100 million Indigenous peoples living in d Americas, about 1/5th of d ppl living @ d time.Asia, & some of Africa, America never saw its colonizers leave. America’s ancient n8ons have nt recovered their au2nomy, but dat does nt mean dey have disappeared. Aztecs 1100 d city-st8s or altepetl which were spread over central Mexico began 2 compete with each other 4 local resources & regional dominance. Each st8 had its own ruler or tla2ani who led a council of nobles but these small urban centres surrounded by farmland soon sought 2 expand their wealth & influence so dat by c. 1400 several small empires had 4med in d Valley of Mexico. Dominant amongst these were Texcoco, capital of d Acholhua region, & Azcapotzalco, capital of d Tepenec. These 2 empires came face 2 face in 1428 with d Tepanec War. Tenochtitlán was also a huge trading centre with goods flowing in & out such as gold, greenst1, turquoise, cot2n, cacao beans, 2bacco, pottery, 2ols, weapons, foodstuffs (2rtillas, chile sauces, maize, beans, & even insects, 4 example) & slaves. D Spanish invaders were hugely impressed by d city’s splendour & magnificent architecture & ar2rk, especially d Templo Mayor pyramid & massive st1 sculptures.Maya, a group of ppl who inhabited Mesoamerica after d Olmec, lived in ? Is 2day southern Mexico, Gu8mala, Honduras, Belize, & El Salvador. Complex Maya societies—including city-st8s—arose throughout these different areas, & local lords struggled with 1 another 4 power & access 2 trade routes & goods. Surviving ar2rk frm d time suggests dat these rulers held considerable power in their own kingdoms & were possibly seen as divine.1492, dey lived as dey had 4 2000 years, in small city-st8s. Each st8 had their own dynasty, art style, religion, which was a strength. D Spaniards could nt conquer a single capital & thereby conquer ol. Instead d invaders had d unrewarding & laborious task of crushing 1 small kingdom after another, followed by rebellion & resistance wen their backs were turned. It is there4 hard 2 say wen & where d conquest of d Maya 2ok place. Although some of dem were d 1st Mesoamericans 2 meet Spaniards, other Mayas were d last 2 b subdued. 1 st8 kept its independence in d Petén jungle til 1697, while smaller groups lived free in remote parts of d same 4st til d twentieth century. Mexico fell, Spanish war parties exploded over Mesoamerica. D dame of Cortés & d misery of Europe brought thousands 2 d land now called New Spain. D Maya civiliz8ons tried 2 hold off d invaders, but d spread of disease was often 2o much. Un4tun8ly 4 d Spanish invaders, d 4st & d mountains were hard 2 control & often faced rebellion.Inca Civiliz8on flourished in ancient Peru btwn c. 1400 & 1533 CE. D Inca Empire eventually extended across western South America frm Qui2 in d north 2 Santiago in d south. It was d largest empire ever seen in d Americas & d largest in d world @ dat time.Undaunted by d often harsh Andean environment, d Incas conquered ppl & exploited landscapes in such diverse settings as plains, mountains, deserts, & tropical jungle. Famed 4 their unique art & architecture, dey constructed finely-built & imposing buildings wherever dey conquered, & their spectacular adapt8on of natural landscapes with terracing, highways, & mountain2p settlements c…. Impress modern visi2rs @ such world-famous sites as Machu Picchu.Inca Empire was spectacularly quick. 1st, ol speakers of d Inca language Quechua (or Runasimi) were given privileged status, & dis noble class then domin8d ol d important roles within d empire. Thupa Inca Yupanqui (also known as 2pa Inca Yupanqui), Pachacuti’s successor frm 1471 CE, is credited with having expanded d empire by a massive 4,000 km (2,500 miles). D Incas themselves called their empire Tawantinsuyo (or Tahuantinsuyu) meaning ‘Land of d 4 Quarters’ or ‘d 4 Parts 2gether’. Cuzco was considered d navel of d world, & radi8ng out were highways & sacred sighting lines (ceques) 2 each quarter: Chinchaysuyu (north), Antisuyu (east), Collasuyu (south), & Cuntisuyu (west). Spreading across ancient Ecuador, Peru, northern Chile, Bolivia, upland Argentina, & southern Colombia & stretching 5,500 km (3,400 miles) north 2 south, 40,000 Incas governed a huge terri2ry with some 10 million subjects speaking over 30 different languages.Cuzco itself, which had a popul8on of btwn 50,000 & 100,000, Andean cities were small. Huánuco, a typical provincial venter, was home 2 only 15,000 & many of its buildings were 4 public servants, work parties, & troops. Most ppl lived on d land in small 2wns & villages.Cherokees & Europeans was in 1540, wen Hernando de So2 & several hundred of his conquistadors traveled thru Cherokee terri2ry during their expedition in ? Is now d southeastern United St8s. @ dat time d N8on held dominion over a sprawling terri2ry comprised of much or most of d modern st8s of West Virginia, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, South Carolina, Georgia & Alabama. In 1674, d Cherokee popul8on was estim8d 2 b around 50,000. Frm d mid-1600s 2 d 1730s, d popul8on had dropped 2 about 25,000. His2rically, d N8on was led by a principal chief, regularly elected by chiefs frm Cherokee 2wns within d N8on’s domain.1673, English settlers came 2 Echota, d East Tennessee capital of d Cherokee N8on, 2 establish trade rel8ons. European goods such as brass kettles, textiles, scissors & knives, guns & ammunition, metal hatchets & hoes, & trinkets were exchanged 4 n8ve deerskins, beeswax, & river cane baskets. Deerskins were in gr8 demand in England 2 make leather goods & products. Gradually, trade negoti8ons & intermarriage btwn tribe members & d settlers permitted d English 2 establish themselves in Cherokee villages.Central philosophy, called “duyuktv,” which means “d right way.” It focused on seeking balance & harmony in life, & respecting d natural world. 4 d Cherokees, spirituality, communal responsibility, & sacrifice guided their lives. These principles were observed in their central plazas & council houses. D plazas were d site 4 public ceremonies, & d council houses were home 2 d “sacred fire,” which embodied d 2wn’s spiritual essence. Dey governed themselves with a system led by priests, peace chiefs, war chiefs, & democr8c consensus.1700s, attempts were made 2 set up tre8es, & d Cherokee was recognized as & independent n8on, or sovereign. 2 protect their land & their rights, Cherokees 2ok up arms & entered in2 conflicts with European factions. European influences & missionaries began changing d way of Cherokee life, with some Cherokee becoming Christian; dey also sent their children 2 missionary schools, where dey learned English.Haudenosaunee, or “ppl of d longhouse,” commonly referred 2 as Iroquois or 6 N8ons, R members of a confederacy of Aboriginal n8ons known as d Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Originally a confederacy of 5 n8ons inhabiting d northern part of New York st8, d Haudenosaunee consisted of d Seneca, Cayuga, 1ida, Onondaga & Mohawk. Wen d Tuscarora joined d confederacy early in d 18th century, it became known as d 6 N8ons. Fur trade in d 16th century, d Haudenosaunee embarked on successful campaigns 2 subjug8 or disperse neighbouring groups. D French-allied Huron-Wendat were dispersed frm their homeland after several villages were destroyed in 1649 & multiple individuals were adopted in2 d Haudenosaunee. These dispersal campaigns would also impact d Petun, Neutral & Erie in d following decade.// d colubus voyage Americas had been isol8d & cut off frm Asia @ d end of d last Ice Age approxim8ly 12,000 years ago. Apart frm occasional contact with Vikings in eastern Canada 500 years prior 2 Columbus & Polynesian voyages 2 d Pacific Ocean coastline of South America around 1200, there was no regular or substantial contact btwn d world’s peoples. By d 1400s, due 2 rising tension in d Middle East, Europeans began d search 4 new trade routes led by Prince Henry d Naviga2r of Portugal (1394-1460), who sailed southward along d west coast of Africa, establishing trading posts. D Portuguese goal was 2 sail around d southern tip of Africa in2 d Indian Ocean 2 directly access d markets of India, China, & Japan. Other countries travelled west & found d Americas.D Columbian Exchange refers 2 d exchange of diseases, ideas, food crops, & popul8ons btwn d New World & d Old World following d voyage 2 d Americas by Chris2pher Columbus in 1492. Exchange nt only brought gains, but also losses. European contact enabled d transmission of diseases 2 previously isol8d communities, which caused devast8on far exceeding dat of even d Black Death in 4teenth-century Europe. Europeans brought deadly viruses & bacteria, such as smallpox, measles, typhus, & cholera, 4 which Indigenous peoples had no immunity. On their return home, European sailors brought syphilis 2 Europe. Although less deadly, d disease was known 2 have caused gr8 social disruption throughout d Old World.Effects of d Columbian Exchange were nt isol8d 2 d parts of d world most directly particip8ng in d exchange: Europe & d Americas. It also had large, although less direct, impacts on Africa & Asia. European explor8on & coloniz8on of d vast tropical regions of these continents was aided by d New World discovery of qui9, d 1st effective treatment 4 malaria. Moreover, d cultiv8on of financially lucr8ve crops in d Americas, along with d devast8on of Indigenous popul8ons frm disease, resulted in a demand 4 labor dat was met with d abduction & 4ced movement of over 12 million Africans during d 6teenth 2 9teenth centuries.Infectious diseases dat spread frm d Old World 2 d New is long; d major killers include smallpox, measles, whooping cough, chicken pox, bubonic plague, typhus, & malaria. Coz Indigenous popul8ons had no previous contact with Old World diseases, dey were immunologically defenseless.His2rian Dobyns writes dat “be4 d invasion of peoples of d New World by pathogens dat evolved among inhabitants of d Old World, Indigenous peoples lived in a rel8vely disease-free environment. .. . Be4 Europeans initi8d d Columbian Exchange of germs & viruses, d peoples of d Americas suffered no smallpox, no measles, no chickenpox, no influenza, no typhus, no typhoid or parathyroid fever, no diphtheria, no cholera, no bubonic plague, no scarlet fever, no whooping cough, & no malaria” .Transfer of foods btwn d Old & New Worlds during d Columbian Exchange had important consequences 4 world his2ry. His2rian Alfred Crosby describes d significance of d transfer of food crops btwn d continents, writing: “d coming 2gether of d continents was a prerequisite 4 d popul8on explosion of d past 2 centuries, & certainly played an important role in d Industrial Revolution. D transfer across d ocean of d staple food crops of d Old & New Worlds made possible d 4mer.”believed dat N8ve Americans began 2 use 2bacco around d 1st century BCE. There is no evidence dat N8ve Americans ever consumed 2bacco recre8onally. It was instead used as a hallucinogen during religious ceremonies & as a painkiller. Ramon Pane, a monk who accompanied Columbus on his 2nd voyage, gave lengthy descriptions about d cus2m of smoking 2bacco.He described how n8ves inhaled smoke thru a Y-shaped tube. D 2 ends were placed in d nostrils & d 3rd end over a pastille of burning leaves.Although d exact manner of smoking differed btwn regions within.2bacco was quickly adopted by Europeans. @ 1st 2bacco was regarded & consumed only as a medicine. In 1560, d French ambassador 2 Portugal, Jean Nicot de Villemain (frm whom d term “nicotine” origin8s), proclaimed dat 2bacco had a panacea of medicinal properties. In 1561, Nicot sent 2bacco leaves 2 Catherine de Medici, d Queen of France. She was so impressed with d plant dat she decreed dat 2bacco b called Herba Regina (d Queen’s Herb). In England, 2bacco was 1st introduced by Sir John Hawkins & his crew in d 1580s. It was chiefly used by sailors, including those employed by Sir Francis Drake. By d beginning of d 7teenth century, 2bacco had spread 2 ol parts of Europe.Coca leaves R grown frm bushes n8ve 2 d Andes. D leaves contain alkaloids dat can b extracted 2 produce commercial cocaine. D use of leaves hs a long his2ry. During d Incan Empire, dey were chewed during religious rituals. Early Spanish settlers adopted dis practice & brought it back 2 Europe. Many notable figures, such as Sigmund Freud, became regular users & active prop1nts of its ability 2 increase cre8vity & stamina, & decrease hunger. Freud supposedly began using it after hearing of d Belgian army’s experiments in giving coca extracts 2 its soldiers, who per4med btr on less food over longer periods of time. D most famous legal use of coca is undoubtedly with d soft drink Coca-Cola, which initially contained marin8d coca leaves. D soft drink was invented by Atlanta pharmacist Jon Pember2n as a stimul8ng beverage dat served as a substitute 4 alcohol @ a time wen d sale of alcohol was illegal in Atlanta.Columbus’ voyages 2 d Americas, it was soon discovered dat certain Old World crops were very well-suited 2 New World clim8s. In many cases, d Old World crops were grown much more productively in d New World soils & clim8s than dey were grown back home. Crops flourished in d Old, is nt jst coincidence. It is, in part, d result of 2 aspects of d Columbian Exchange. 1st, both d New World & d Old World contain continents dat lie on a North-South orient8on & span nearly ol degrees of l8tude. Coz clim8s change most drastically as 1 moves North-South, rather than East-West, dis helped 2 ensure dat New World plants could find an Old World clim8 similar 2 their n8ve clim8 & vice versa. 2nd, a benefit also arose frm d 2 regions being isol8d 4 thousands of years. D isol8on caused separ8 evolutions of plants, parasites, & pests. There4, transplanted crops often flourished coz dey were able 2 escape d pests & parasites dat had coevolved with dem in their n8ve habitat.Old World crop dat could b much more effectively cultiv8d in d New World is sugar cane. Most of d world’s land suitable 4 sugar cultiv8on lies in d Americas, particularly in L8n America & d Caribbean. Sugar cane was 1st carried 2 d New World (frm d Spanish Canary Islands) on Columbus’ 2nd voyage in 1493 & was 1st cultiv8d in Spanish San2 Domingo (Dominican Republic). By 1509, enslaved Africans were being imported 2 d island, & by 1516, sugar was being exported 2 Europe. Soon after, d Portuguese also brought sugar cane across d Atlantic, & by 1526, sugar was being exported frm Brazil 2 Lisbon (Mintz, 1985, pp. 32-33). Beginning in d last 2 decades of d 6teenth century, d interests of d Dutch, English, & French also turned 2 sugar production. Btwn 1630 & 1660, d Dutch, English, & French began 2 found their own sugar colonies. D clim8 in d Americas provided such an advantage 2 New World sugar producers dat by 1680, sugar cane production was domin8d by d New World.Qui9, an important medicinal “gift” frm d New World, had significant consequences 4 d rel8onship btwn Europe & its tropical Old World colonies, particularly its African colonies. Qui9 & rel8d anti-malarial alkaloids (quinidine, cincho9, cinchonidine) R derived frm d bark of cinchona trees n8ve 2 d Andes. D trees grow in scattered clumps in d eastern mountainous 4sts of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, & Bolivia btwn 10 degrees north & 20 degrees south @ elev8ons btwn 800 2 3,400 meters. Qui9 was d 1st effective treatment of malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, d pro2zoan parasite dat is transmitted btwn mammals by d female Anopheles mosqui2. Qui9 works by inhibiting plasmodium reproduction.Natural rubber is made frm l8x, which is produced wen certain plants R cut or punctured. Although rubber can b made frm many different plants frm around d world, d only commercially viable rubber plants R d Hevea rubber tree frm Central & South America, & a wild vine dat grows in West-Central Africa. His2rically, Africans made little use of rubber, except as an adhesive 2 fasten spearheads & arrowheads 2 their shafts. Indigenous peoples of d Americas, on d other hand, had developed methods 2 prevent d l8x frm decaying, which was accomplished by smoking d l8x over fires 2 4m spools of usable crude rubber. D rubber was used 2 cre8 a wide range of items dat were of central importance in their daily lives: hoods, boots, tents, balls, 2rches, jars, containers, syringes, 2ys, breastpl8s, rubber-headed drum sticks, & adhesives.Atrocities & human costs dat were suffered in d production of rubber R well known & well documented. In attempts 2 4ce Indigenous peoples 2 gather rubber, villages were burnt, groups were massacred, & hostages were taken, who were then typically starved & physically disfigured. D popul8on of d Congo is estim8d 2 have been about 25 million prior d rubber boom, in d 1880s. In 1911, after d peak of d boom, d popul8on was 8.5 million, & in 1923 after d completion of d boom, it was 7.7 million. If 1 compares d popul8on losses rel8ve 2 d production of rubber, an as2nishing conclusion is reached: an individual was “lost” frm d Congo 4 evry 10 kilograms of rubber exported.African slaves 2 d Americas reached its h8 in d 8eenth century. In d 9teenth century, d flow of slaves slowed, 1st as a result of d British Slave Trade Act of 1807 dat banned imports of slaves in2 British colonies, & l8r coz of d British Slavery Abolition Act of 1837, which abolished ne use of slave labor within d British colonies.In response 2 d abolition of d slave trade, many employers resorted 2 bonded labor contracts as a way 2 obtain a c….Upply of cheap labor. Most of d migr8on occurred btwn Europe’s Old & New World colonies. Caribbean plant8ons provided d main demand 4 laborers frm French Indochina & d British colonies in Asia. 4 example, over half a million indentured laborers were moved frm d Indian subcontinent 2 d British Caribbean during d 9teenth century & d beginning of d twentieth century. China, after its 4ced opening 2 d West upon losing d Opium Wars (in 1842 & 1860), provided another important source of indentured labour. D re4m8on Protestant Re4m8on was a religious re4m movement dat swept thru Europe in d 1500s. It resulted in d cre8on of a branch of Christianity called Protestantism, a name used collectively 2 refer 2 d many religious groups dat separ8d frm d Roman Catholic Church due 2 differences in doctrine.Protestant Re4m8on was a call back 2 biblical Christianity, 2 acknowledge dat d authority on ol matters, both 4 d Church & believers, is God’s Word al1 & dat sinful man is reconciled with God by faith in Christ al1. Roman Catholic Church was d most powerful institution in Europe during d Middle Ages, & un4tun8ly, d most corrupt. Ppl living in europe saw dis control in a # of ways including but nt limited 2:d Church set d standards of living d Church administered ol sacraments (ceremonies needed 4 salv8on) d Church controlled educ8on Popes (d head of d Catholic Church) called 4 crusades 2 rid d Holy Lands (Modern-day Israel & Palestine) of d Muslims, Popes commanded monarchs, Unlike 2day, religion was nt a matter of opinion. It was expected dat U attend d Catholic Church & subscribe 2 ol of its teachings.Immorality: dis included nt only improper rel8onships but also drunkenness, gambling, & fancy dress. Ignorance: nt being as educ8d as many of their followers as dey couldn’t read, write, or even understand d L8n mass dey were delivering evry Sunday.Pluralism: dis was d practice of clergy holding multiple positions, thus making dem less than effective in terms of ministering 2 their flocks as dey couldn’t b everywhere @ 1ce & often only wanted 2 stay in their favoured region. Simony: Church offices were also used as rewards 4 government officials in lieu of rulers who lacked sufficient funds 2 pay their civil servants .In England, social, economic, & religious causes were motiv8ng fac2rs behind d Re4m8on jst as on d continent. Church re4m was nt a new call in England as seen by d Lollards who called 4 a “personal, scriptural, non-sacramental, & lay domin8d religion” which believed in pacifism (no war) & also by William Tyndale who cre8d Tyndale’s English Bible thus opening d scriptures 2 those who could read. In actual fact however, d Catholic Church in England was in very healthy condition, & ultim8ly d Re4m8on was an act of st8 initi8d by d king’s emotional life.Henry VIII wanted an annulment(declaring a marriage invalid) of his marriage with Catherine of Aragon on d fact dat he was in luv with Anne Boleyn & he did nt want Catherine’s daughter, Mary, 2 inherit d thr1. D only person who could do dis was ofc d Pope, who tried 2 ignore it coz it would have given support 2 d Lutheran assertion dat popes substituted their own evil judgements 4 d law of God (Divorce & annulments were ofc frowned upon by d Catholic Church).Nt content 2 let d matter drop, Henry decided 2 remove d English church (2day known as d Anglican Church in Canada & d Episcopalian Church in d US) frm papal jurisdiction, which effectively meant dat he, & nt d Pope, would b d final word of authority in England. 2 accomplish dis he used Parliament 2 legalize d Re4m8on in England thru a series of steps:d crown would b d highest legal authority in d land.Churchmen had 2 submit 2 d king.Ecclesiastical (church) laws had 2 b approved by d king.D king was d head of d Church of England.Pilgrimage of Grace (a massive multi-class rebellion dat proved d largest in English his2ry against st8-ordered religious changes), it would seem dat most in England supported d change. Dis was probably coz of a combin8on of nt knowing ? Was going on, a reluctance 2 jeopardize life or limb, or 2 obtain or maintain a career or a family’s gud name. Dis was nt 2 b a 2lerant change either, as those who did nt join often met d f8 of beheading, as Thomas More found out wen he refused 2 acknowledge d new church of Henry.Absolute Monarchies 2nd half of d Renaissance, a new type of authority began 2 emerge throughout Europe as d unified n8on-st8 began 2 emerge. Prior 2 d 16th C d king was nt an absolute ruler, but instead had 2 rule with d consent of d nobles. In d age of d new monarchical st8, it was deemed dat d power of d King was God-given &, there4, by its very nature, absolute. Although in d Middle Ages, parliamentary institutions (institutions dat were meant 2 act as a check on d power of d king & 2 give d ppl a voice) had developed throughout Europe, d political structure of most countries was beginning 2 change.Best captured in d writings of French philosopher Jean Bodin who wrote of dis new style of monarchy:It is d distinguishing mark of d sovereign dat he cannot in ne way b subject 2 d commands of another, 4 it is he who makes law 4 d subject, abrog8s laws already made, & amends absolute law. Medieval kingsGoverned by d “grace of God” & had 2 respect & obey d law Restrained by d church, d nobility, & abolished financial limit8on groups, or Bureaucrats used their public offices 2 benefit themselves & their families Armies raised by feudal lords 4 particular wars or campaigns, after which troops were disbanded.Absolute kingsClaimed 2 rule by divine right (responsible 2 God al1) Regul8d d religious sects, liberties held by certain areas, groups, or provinces, & cre8d bureaucracies 2 raise m1y Civil servants served d st8 as represented by d king Permanent standing armies By 2day’s standards d absolutist kings were nt 2talitarian like we might envision with somebody like Hitler or Stalin (dey were limited by technological & economic limit8ons), but simply tried 2 exalt themselves as d embodiment of d st8. Dey do however 4shadow 2talitarian regimes in 2 ways: d glorific8on of d st8 over ol aspects of d culture d use of war & an expansionist policy 2 divert attn frm domestic ills.Absolutism in France, it is important 2 note dat it was nt jst in political powers dat d king asserted his power. It was also 2 play out in d economic, religious, artistic, & military life of d n8on as well, as d king’s power reigned supreme throughout France.1 way dat Louis XIV achieved his goal of 2tal control was 2 advoc8 a philosophy dat d monarch enjoyed certain devine rights. D idea was developed by Louis’ chief political philosopher, Bishop Boussuet, who wrote dat since d king was chosen by God, only God was fit 2 judge d behaviour of d king, nt parliamentary bodies or angry nobles. Although it is unclear whether Louis ever said d famous line “l’etat, c’est moi” (“I’m d st8”), d st8ment does assert Louis’ belief dat no political or religious authority existed, either within or beyond d borders of France, dat had ne right 2 encroach on his sovereignty.“French Classicism” which imit8d d subject matter & style of d renaissance flowered under Louis XIV with 1 notable exception: individualism was nt allowed, & d artist’s ef4ts were directed 2 d glorific8on of d st8 as personified by d king.Examples included d paintings of Poussin & d theatre work of Moliere.Aggression led 2 d 4m8on of d League of Augsburg against France (including England, Holland, d Habsburg Empire, Spain & Sweden), an alliance dat was financed thru d vast resources of d Bank of Amsterdam & England. Eventually Louis became hampered coz of lack of resources, peasant revolts, & bad harvests. Wen he tried 2 unite d French & Spanish crowns (thru his nephew, Philip) in d War of d Spanish Succession, Louis was met by d Grand Alliance (England, d Netherlands, Prussia & Austria) which was able 2 secure enough vic2ries 2 have Louis sign d Peace of Utrecht. Spain In d 16th century, Spain had ol d trappings of an absolutist st8:A permanent bureaucracy A standing army N8onal taxes These were ol paid 4 by vast amounts of silver frm Peru. D image is of Po2si Mountain in Bolivia, d richest silver mine in d world during d time of d Spanish rule, producing up 2 60,000 2nnes by 1996./ot2man empireIn d 11th century, d Seljuk Turks, a ppl frm d Asian steppe who had accepted d Sunni version of Islam, swept over Persia & neighboring eastern terri2ries & then advanced westwards 2wards Ana2lia. There, dey dealt d imperial 4ces of d Byzantine Empire a devast8ng defeat near Manzikert in 1071, & hence4th several Turkic tribes settled d region. Then d Turkic groups fought d Mongols, who invaded Ana2lia following d establishment of d Il-Khanid (Ilhanid) empire in Iran & Mesopotamia in d last half of d 13th century, defe8ng d Seljuk Empire. By d end of d 13th century, d various Ana2lian beyliks (petty kingdoms) were virtually independent but feuding amongst each other.Following d final Mongol defeat of d Seljuqs in 1293, Osman I emerged as prince (bey) of d border principality dat 2ok over Byzantine Bithynia in northwestern Ana2lia around Bursa, commanding d ghazis against d Byzantines in dat area. Hemmed in on d east by d more powerful Turkmen principality of Germiyan, Osman & his immedi8 successors concentr8d their attacks on Byzantine terri2ries bordering d Bosporus & d Sea of Marmara 2 d west.Ot2mans, lft as d major Muslim rivals of Byzantium, attracted masses of nomads & urban unemployed who were roaming thru d Middle East searching 4 means 2 gain their livelihoods & seeking 2 fulfill their religious desire 2 expand d terri2ry of Islam. D Ot2mans were able 2 take advantage of d decay of d Byzantine frontier defense system & d rise of economic, religious, & social discontent in d Byzantine Empire &, beginning under Osman & continuing under his successors Orhan (Orkhan, ruled 1324–60) & Murad I (1360–89), 2ok over Byzantine terri2ries, 1st in western Ana2lia & then in southeastern Europe. It was only under Bayezid I (1389–1402) dat d wealth & power gained by dat initial expansion were used 2 assimil8 d Ana2lian Turkish principalities 2 d east.Orhan’s son Murad I was d 1st Ot2man emperor 2 use Gallipoli 4 permanent conquests in Europe. Constantinople itself was bypassed, despite d weakness & disorganiz8on of its defenders, coz its thick walls & well-placed defenses remained 2o strong 4 d nomadic Ot2man army, which c…. Lack siege equipment. Murad’s initial conquests extended northward in2 Thrace, culmin8ng with d capture in 1361 of Adrianople, d 2nd city of d Byzantine Empire. Renamed Edirne, d city became d new Ot2man capital, providing d Ot2mans with a centre 4 d administr8ve & military control of Thrace.Sultan Mehmed II (ruled 1451–81) d devşirme increasingly came 2 domin8 & pressed their desire 4 new conquests in order 2 take advantage of d European weakness cre8d @ Varna. Constantinople became their 1st objective. 2 Mehmed & his supporters, d Ot2man dominions in Europe could never reach their full extent or b molded in2 a real empire as long as their natural administr8ve & cultural centre remained outside their hands. D grand vizier (2p minister) & other Turkish notables bitterly opposed d attack, ostensibly coz it might draw a new Crusade but in fact coz of their fear dat d capture of d Byzantine capital might bring about d final triumph of d devşirme.Mehmed built Rumeli 4tress on d European side of d Bosporus, frm which he conducted d siege (April 6–May 29, 1453) & conquest of Constantinople. D trans4m8on of dat city in2 d Ot2man capital of Istanbul marked an important new stage in Ot2man his2ry. Internally, it meant d end of power & influence 4 d old Turkish nobility, whose leaders were executed or exiled 2 Ana2lia & whose European properties were confisc8d, & d triumph of d devşirme & their supporters in Istanbul & d West. Externally, d conquest made Mehmed II d most famous ruler in d Muslim world. Moreover, d possession of Constantinople stimul8d in Mehmed a desire 2 place under his dominion nt merely d Islamic & Turkic worlds but also a re-cre8d Byzantine Empire &, perhaps, d entire world of Christendom.Ot2man Empire reached its peak in d 16th & 17th centuries under d reign of Suleiman d Magnificent. However, it began 2 decline in d 18th century & was ultim8ly defe8d by d Allied powers in World War I.D Ot2mans were able 2 take advantage of d decay of d Byzantine frontier defense system & d rise of economic, religious, & social discontent in d Byzantine Empire &, beginning under Osman & continuing under his successors Orhan (Orkhan, ruled 1324–60) & Murad I (1360–89), 2ok over Byzantine Ot2man dynasty was expelled frm Turkey in 1924 & most members 2ok on d surname Osmanoğlu, meaning “son of Osman.” d female members of d dynasty were allowed 2 return after 1951, & d male members after 1973./ ming china d imperial Ming Dynasty ruled China frm 1368 2 1644. It replaced d Mongol Yuan dynasty which had been in power since d 13th century. Despite challenges frm abroad & within, d Ming dynasty oversaw an unprecedented growth in China’s popul8on & general economic prosperity. D Ming were succeeded by d Qing dynasty (1644-1911).Ming dynasty was established following d collapse of d Mongol rule of China, known as d Yuan dynasty (1271-1368). D Yuan had been beset by famines, plagues, floods, widespread banditry, & peasant uprisings. D Mongol rulers also squabbled amongst themselves 4 power & failed 2 quash numerous rebellions, including dat perpetr8d by a group known as d Red Turban Movement led by a peasant called Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398). Red Turban Movement, an offshoot of d radical Buddhist White Lotus Movement & initially reacting against 4ced labour on government construction projects, was most active in northern China, & Zhu 2ok over their leadership in 1355. Zhu also replaced d Red Turban’s traditional policy aim of reinst8ng d old Song dynasty (960-1279) with his own personal ambitions 2 rule & gained wider support by ditching d anti-Confucian policies which had alien8d d educ8d classes. Al1 amongst d many rebel leaders of d period, Zhu unders2od dat 2 establish a stable government he needed administra2rs nt jst warriors out 4 loot.Zhu Yuanzhang’s 1st major coup had been d capture of Nanjing in 1356. Zhu’s successes c….& he defe8d his 2 main rival rebel leaders & their armies, 1st Chen Youliang @ d battle of Poyang Lake (1363) & then Zhang Shicheng in 1367. Wen Han Lin’er died – he who had claimed 2 b d rightful heir 2 d line of Song emperors – Zhu was lft d most powerful leader in China, & he declared himself emperor in January 1368. Zhu would take d reign name Hongwu (meaning ‘abundantly marital’) & d dynasty he founded Ming (meaning ‘bright’ or ‘light’). He used draconian methods, Emperor Hongwu re4med d government & purged d military of those hi-ranking generals he considered corrupt, seized large est8s, & 4bid Mongol cus2ms, even changing d ppl’s clothing frm d Mongol style 2 a different fashion. 1 of Zhu Yuanzhang’s significant achievements was developing d Yellow Register Archives, a monumental popul8on survey, d largest in d world be4 modern times. He originally wanted d survey 4 tax purposes; however, it reached beyond d limits of tax8on 2 cre8 a long-lasting record of d ppl of China.In d 15th century, during d Ming dynasty, d popul8on was 85 million.Stability of d Ming regime & agricultural re4ms allowed significant economic growth & an increase in intern8onal trade (now promoted again), especially frm d 16th century. D emperors were initially a little old-fashi1d in their trade policies, insisting dat certain countries only use certain ports @ certain times, but eventually these rules were relaxed, & East Asia became a melting pot of trading neighbours as well as attracting d Spanish, Dutch, & Portuguese. Vast quantities of silver, in particular, came in2 China via Manila frm European-controlled Peru & Mexico. In 1557 d Portuguese were even permitted a trading base of their own @ Portguese Macao. Dis opening up of trade also helped deal with d rampant piracy dat had been plaguing Chinese w8rs, now dat d Ming invested in a naval fleet.Brand new products coming in frm d New World, exotica like sweet pota2es, maize, 2ma2es, peanuts & 2bacco, some of which would b cultiv8d in areas of China nt suitable 4 homegrown crops, thus greatly expanding food production & so, in turn, d popul8on. Over d course of d dynasty’s reign, d popul8on of China would rise frm 60-80 million 2 150-200 million. As urban centres grew so women amongst d wealthier classes began 2 enjoy more freedom than previously. Dey were able 2 own businesses in their own right, trade as merchants, & make an independent living as an artist or dancer. Conversely, changes in inheritance laws meant women’s rights went backwards in dat area. Widows, 4 example, could no longer inherit their husband’s land & dey were expected nt 2 remarry. Ming Dynasty brought prosperity 2 d region & significant achievements in artistic pursuits. Painting became an important art 4m based on previous styles with more colors, especially seal brown, a color similar 2 d fur on seals. Coz of d popularity of painting, many new schools were 4med, developing contemporary master painters. 4 prominent painters domin8d d era, Shen Zhou, Wen Zhengming, Tang Yin, & Qiu Ying, who were considered d masters of d dynasty. Qiu Ying painted in d style of d court artists Shen Zhou & Wen Zhengming following a type defined as liter8 – an interest in personal intelligence, scholarship, & expression. Dey didn’t paint nature realistically; instead, dey expressed their thoughts, ideas, & feelings in d painting. Tang Yin adopted a style in d middle of d others. Dey ol attended & taught @ d Wu School, a place 4 professional artists 2 gather, paint & sell their paintings & 4 new artists 2 learn. Dey studied & were experts in d “3 Perfections”; painting, calligraphy, & poetry, d artistic standard of d time.Shen Zhou (1427 – 1509) was frm a wealthy family & spent his life painting, writing poetry, & calligraphy; & was considered 1 of d elite painters. He founded d Wu School, bringing new ideas based on his2rical traditions & a more intim8 style with trees, rocks, & calligraphy conventions. He was known 4 his landscapes, flower & bird paintings.Wen Zhengming (1470 – 1559) spent several years pursuing a career in d government only 2 fail d civil examin8ons 9 times & finally decided 2 abandon his ideas & turn 2 paint, calligraphy, & poetry. He studied under Shen Zhou, examined d ancient painters, & developed his style using ink & color in various dark & light t1s. In many paintings, he favored washes colored blue & green.Qui Ying (1494 – 1552) was a painter frm an early age, exceptionally skilled in copying d old masters. As he grew older, he focused on figures & flowers, usually set in landscapes. He was known 4 his figures cre8d with very fine lines in ink.Tang Yin (1470 – 1524) was 1 of d most famous of d 4 Masters painters who, like d others, was accomplished as a painter, poet, & calligrapher. Early in his life, he pursued a job in d civil service where he was accused of bribing an examiner & deprived of ne further service in d government, freeing him 2 pursue an art career. Many of his paintings focused on d activities & beauty of women & d interaction of ppl. Tao Gu Presenting a Lyric, painted on silk, portrays Tao Gu sitting on a bed with his writing m8rials, ready 2 cre8 a poem. /Sengoku Japan d Sengoku Period (Sengoku Jidai, 1467-1568 CE), also known as d Warring St8s Period, was a turbulent & violent period of Japanese his2ry wen rival warlords or daimyo fought bitterly 4 control of Japan. D period falls within d Muromachi period (Muromachi Jidai, 1333-1573 CE) of Japanese medieval his2ry wen d Ashikaga shogun capital was loc8d in d Muromachi area of Kyo2. D Ashikaga Shogun8 (1338-1573 CE) held control of d central part of Japan, & d bureaucracy @ d capital was rel8vely efficient, but d outer provinces were lft semi-independent as local warlords or daimyo ruled their own lands how dey saw fit. Local officials & est8 managers such as d ji2 found it much more difficult 2 secure d taxes d st8 was due frm landlords who now had no fear of ne government reprisals. D daimyo (literally ‘gr8 Names’) were feudal lords who commanded personal armies of samurai or any1 else willing 2 take up arms & defend their lord’s est8s & help expand it.
Sengoku Japan/d Ashikaga Shogun8 (1338-1573 CE) held control of d central part of Japan, & d bureaucracy @ d capital was rel8vely efficient, but d outer provinces were lft semi-independent as local warlords or daimyo ruled their own lands how dey saw fit. Local officials & est8 managers such as d ji2 found it much more difficult 2 secure d taxes d st8 was due frm landlords who now had no fear of ne government reprisals. D daimyo (literally ‘gr8 Names’) were feudal lords who commanded personal armies of samurai or any1 else willing 2 take up arms & defend their lord’s est8s & help expand it.Daimyo were aris2crats with a long heritage of land ownership, others were military governors (shugo) who went independent frm d weakened shogun8, & there were also new lords who were d sons of tradesmen who had gathered 2gether a small army 2 simply take by 4ce d land of others. D phenomenon of new rulers overthrowing d established order & of branch families taking d est8s of d traditional major clans became known as gekokujo or ‘those below overthrowing those above.’ d consequence of ol d upheaval was dat Japan became a patchwork of feudal est8s centred around their individual castles & 4tified mansions.Warring St8s period kicked off with d Onin War (Onin No Ran, 1467-1477 CE). Dis Civil War – its name derives frm d year period – broke out coz of d bitter rivalry btwn d Hosokawa & Yamana family groups. By d end of d decade, though, d fighting had sucked in most of d influential clans of Japan.Conflict revolved around each side backing a different candid8 4 d position of shogun – a particularly pointless deb8 since shoguns, like d emperors, no longer had ne real power. Rather, d war is seen by his2rians as merely a result of d overly aggressive warlords of Japan being rather 2o keen 2 put their samurai 2 some use – gud or bad. Even wen d war ended in 1477 CE there was no vic2r & no resolution 2 d inherent militarism dat fractured Japan 4 d next century as warlords fought each other with no 1 in particular ever achieving ne dominance. In addition, d fighting destroyed most of Kyo2 & was brutal in d extreme.Onin War had sorted out who were d weak & d strong daimyo, who thus became much fewer in # (by 1600 CE there would b only about 250 of dem in ol of Japan). A consequence of dis consolid8on of resources was dat field armies now numbered nt hundreds but tens of thousands of warriors. D composition of such armies became more complex with specialised roles cre8d such as d lightly armoured infantry, d ashigaru./ d Scienticfic revolution demonstr8d in dis course, d worldview of medieval & early modern Europe was primarily religious & theological (i.E. Divine right of kings). In d 18th C dis worldview underwent a fundamental trans4m8on among d European upper & middle classes as dey began 2 c d world primarily in secular & scientific terms, nt jst religiously. D 4most cause of dis change in worldview was d Scientific Revolution.Modern Science or d precise knowledge of d physical world based on d union of experimental observ8ons with sophistic8d mathem8cs crystallized in d 7teenth century.It began with medieval university life dat 2ok on philosophy as a field independent frm d study of theology & a sense of free inquiry. As philosophy broke away frm theology, science (which was originally seen as a minor branch of philosophy) was able 2 break away frm its parent area of study, philosophy.During d Renaissance there was a recovery of d finest works of Greek mathem8cians & medical experts & a realiz8on dat these writers held gr8 differences in opinions, differences dat d Europeans were lft 2 solve using their new technology.There was a Renaissance pattern of patronage 4 science in Italy (i.E. D Medicis supported Galileo)d navig8onal problems of long sea voyages, particularly d problem of fixing longitude, led 2 d cre8on of d telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, & air pump. In addition d discovery of new plant & animal life encouraged gre8r interest in d natural sciences.Initially d Catholic Church was open but dis changed during d time of d Catholic Re4m8on, with d result dat pro-science countries (Netherlands, England) prospered.In addition, most Protestant countries adhered 2 Capitalist ideas, & d Scientific Revolution was propelled by financial consider8ons.D Printing Press spread knowledge throughout Europe.D key comp1nts 2 dis view were dat:d motionless earth was fixed @ d center of d Universe, Around it moved 10 separ8 transparent crystal Spheres, In d 1st 8 spheres were d moon, d sun, d 5 known planets, & d fixed stars, & d last 2 spheres were added 2 account 4 slight changes in d position of d stars over d centuries, Beyond d 10th sphere was heaven with d angels keeping d spheres moving in perfect circles.Earth: considered d heaviest & basest of d elements & there4 tended 2ward d center of d universe, W8r: also heavy but lighter than earth, so its natural place was covering d earth.Air: was above w8r Fire: d lightest element.D 1st major breakthrough came with Copernicus, who studied both astronomy & religion. It was coz of his convictions & beliefs in d majesty of a perfect Crea2r dat he attacked d ancient work of P2lemy who had explained d movement of planets & whose work was mainly used by those wishing 2 determine d future thru d field of astrology.It was thus frm d work of Bacon & Descartes dat d modern scientific method was born which joined precise observ8ons & experimentalism with d search 4 general laws dat may b best expressed in rigorously logical, mathem8cal language. Dis ofc is a common methodology used 2day in ol science classrooms.D consequences of d Scientific Revolution were really 2-fold: d scientific community became quite competitive which led 2 scientific advances d new scientific method refused 2 base its conclusions on tradition & established sources, or on ancient authorities & sacred texts.1 un4tun8 consequence was dat applied technology did nt happen during dis time (despite d wishes of Bacon) & thus science was purely an intellectual revolution which did nt really affect d masses. Dis would nt change til d Industrial Revolution./Atlantic Slave trade 2 extract d gre8st possible wealth frm their American colonies, d n8ons of Europe planted dem with cash crops Europeans craved but could nt produce @ home. 2 maximize profit, dey drove workers hard without regard 4 their health or safety. Wen Indigenous Peoples & European servants could nt s8sfy their demands, dey turned 2 enslaved labor taken frm Africa. D latter decision affected d lives of millions of ppl 4 centuries 2 come. 1 of d largest migr8ons in his2ry 2ok place btwn d l8 fifteenth & early 9teenth centuries, as Europeans 4cefully transported approxim8ly twelve million Africans across d Atlantic Ocean 2 d Americas 2 provide labor 4 Europe’s economic enterprises. Some 2 million ppl died on d voyages across d Atlantic. D survivors made possible d extraction of wealth frm European colonies on which d system of mercantilism was based. D majority of Africans brought across d Atlantic were destined 2 labor on sugar plant8ons in d Caribbean & Brazil. Many enslaved Africans were also sent 2 d Spanish colonies in South America; rel8vely few went 2 d North American mainland, mostly Mexico. European colonists had originally considered using enslaved Indigenous peoples 2 per4m d difficult & dangerous labor of harvesting sugar cane & other cash crops, but these ef4ts failed. Indigenous ppl died in large numbers frm infectious diseases, leaving 2o few 2 labor in d fields. On d island of Hispaniola, 4 example, where both d Spanish & d French established sugar plant8ons, d n8ve Taíno popul8on was @ least several hundred thousand strong wen Columbus arrived in 1492. By 1514, however, only about 30-2 thousand Taíno remained. Some had been deliber8ly killed by d Spanish, & others had died frm hard labor & poor living conditions after being enslaved. D vast majority, though, had died of disease.4 Europeans, d ideal laborers would b ppl as unfamiliar with d terrain as dey were, coz unlike enslaved Indigenous ppl who knew d best places 2 hide, dey could more easily b recaptured if dey ran away. In addition, dey would b less affected by many of d infectious diseases frm which Europeans suffered. Although Europeans did nt understand ? Caused immunity, dey knew those who had previously contracted certain diseases like smallpox & survived would nt contract dat disease again. Dey also knew, frm long contact with Africans, dat dey did nt die frm European diseases in d same numbers dat Indigenous Americans did. In d European view, Africans s8sfied both their key requirements.French law passed in 1664 dat restricted planters’ right 2 beat their indentured servants made servants a less desirable 4m of labor in d eyes of French colonists. Thus, Europeans eager 2 extract a profit looked 2 Africa as d solution, & 2 slavery instead of indentured servitude. Dey believed Africans were physically btr suited 2 hard labor than Europeans were, & Africans could also b enslaved 4 a lifetime, ensuring a constant supply of field hands.Portuguese, already using enslaved Africans 2 grow sugar on islands off d coast of Africa, were d 1st 2 bring dem in large numbers 2 d Americas. D initial Portuguese voyage 2 do so transported 2 hundred Africans 2 d Spanish colony of San2 Domingo, on d island of Hispaniola, in 1525. Most were 4ced 2 grow sugar 4 Portuguese colonists in Brazil or were sold 2 d Spanish 4 dis purpose. Captured Africans were also sold 2 d Spanish 2 work in mines in Mexico & Peru or 2 b employed as domestic servants. Soon d British, French, Spanish, Dutch, & Danes were also exporting captives frm Africa 2 produce sugar, rice, indigo, 2bacco, &, by d 8eenth century, coffee in d Americas.Economic system dat relied on d labor of enslaved Africans 2 grow sugar & other crops 4 European colonists in d Americas was a complex 1, 4 purposes of simplific8on, it is often characterized as d triangular trade coz it linked 3 regions (d Americas, Europe, & West Africa) in a ne2rk of exchange/ d enlightenment Although his response hs become a bit of a cliche, there is no btr answer 2 d question “? Is d Enlightenment?” than dat offered by d German philosopher Immanuel Kant. 4 Kant d answer was clear: “Dare 2 know.” By dis he meant dat it was necessary 4 individuals 2 cast off those ideas of d past dat had been accepted simply coz of tradition or intellectual laziness, & instead use 1’s reason 2 probe 4 answers 2 questions on d nature of mankind.Kant, would b something dat ol previous gener8ons had so woefully lacked: Freedom. Dis freedom would extend 2 d political & religious realms & would also lead d writers of d Enlightenment 2 cast doubt on such ancient human practices as slavery.Age of Enlightenment further eroded d power of organized religion & set d stage 4 religion based on individual decision & choice. Though d Enlightenment hs its underpinnings in d Renaissance, it was d Scientific Revolution dat acceler8d d ideas dat some would argue led 2 d modern era.Cre8on of d new world view known as d Enlightenment which: Called 4 everything 2 b submitted 2 d r8onal, critical, scientific way of thinking, Was secular, Held little 4 d urban poor & peasants who often resented d Enlightenment attack on traditional popular beliefs, particularly concerning religion.Enlightenment, also known as d Age of Reason, was an intellectual & cultural movement in d 8eenth century dat emphasized reason over superstition & science over blind faith.Most enlightenment thinkers believed dat political change could best comes frm above coz:Royal absolutism was a fact of life & thus dey hoped 4 benevolent absolutism or d wise rule of a king, Many rulers were beginning 2 listen 2 enlightenment thinkers, tre8ng dem with respect, & seeking their advice. As menti1d previously d philosophes distrusted “d ppl” who dey felt were deluded by superstitions, & driven by violent passions, & like little children were in nid of firm parental guidance. Gre8st enlightened monarchs; he humbly saw d role of d king as “d 1st servant of d st8” & justified monarchy in terms of practical results nt d divine right of kings. He wanted 2 make his capital city Berlin a cultural center & invited Voltaire 2 his court 2 b its chief luminary (although eventually he grew tired of Voltaire after Voltaire made fun of d man who Frederick had named 2 head his Berlin Academy)./2nd agricultural revlo 4 d overwhelming majority of d popul8on in d 18th C, life remained a struggle with poverty & uncertainty. Everyday life was a constant struggle coz Europeans could nt produce very much by modern standards including seldom getting enough gud food, warm clothing, or decent housing. It was during dis time Europe experienced:d 30 Years’ War, Russia rising 2 become a gr8 Power, Poland disappearing as a power d idea of progress, of substantial improvement in d lives of gr8 numbers of ppl, was still only d dream of a small elite in fashionable salons. During dis time popul8on resumed its growth, while colonial empires developed & colonial elites prospered. Some areas, such as Holland, France, & England, did btr than others.Cattle breeders in d middle of d 8eenth century set about 2 increase their profits thru d “improvement” of their beef-producing lives2ck. Improvement meant animals dat gained w8 faster, matured so1r & grew larger.Charles Colling, d owner of a small farm, became envious of d name, & m1y, dat Richard Bakewell was beginning 2 make 4 himself thru his improvement of ? He called Longhorn Cattle. Colling visited Bakewell in 1784 & managed 2 pry loose some of Bakewell’s secrets of success. He returned home & purchased a small bull dat he named “Hubbach.” Hubbach was”small, short-legged, yellowish-red & white with a gud mossy coat”. Colling then bought 4 cows named “Duchess,” “Cherry,” “Daisy” & “Favourite” frm 4 different farmers in d area. It is said dat d owner of Favourite, John Maynard, initially asked 2o hi a price 4 d cow & Colling refused 2 pay. However, Mrs. Colling was particularly fond of d cow & Mrs. Maynard urged her husband 2 lower d price. “These 5 animals were d found8on of d Shorthorn.Ppl 2 resort 2 “famine foods” (including chestnuts, stripped bark, dandelions,& grass) & in extreme cases even involved cannibalism. Unbalanced & inadequ8 food in famine years made ppl weak & extremely susceptible 2 illness & epidemics of dysentery, influenza, or smallpox. 2 most common ppl, d harvest was d “real king” & d king was seldom generous & often cruel.D biggest problem with dis system was soil depletion which thus led 2 d necessity of leaving fields fallow, thus resulting in half d land standing idle in a given year. Eventually 3-year rot8ons were introduced. Further harming d common ppl was d system of exploit8on practiced by d absolutist kings & nobles as dey burdened these ppl with hi taxes & rents. There was little a poor farmer could do as dey couldn’t take land coz d social & political conditions dat enabled d ruling elites 2 squeeze d peasants were ancient & deeply rooted.Changes led 2 2 developments in England: d rise of market-oriented est8 agriculture (big farms owned by rich ppl). D emergence of a landless rural class in a movement known as proletarianiz8on/ changing life of ppl Coffee, dat gr8 morning i-opener & body starter, hs been around 4 a long time. Coffee became so popular in d 17th century dat Coffee houses opened up ol over Europe & in America. Intellectuals gathered @ d local coffee house 2 discuss d l8st issues of d day. These houses were even considered a threat 2 d established governments. Monarchs like George I, called dem “Houses of Sedition” & dey tried 2 ban dem. Til d 17th century ol d coffee of commerce came frm Arabia. Coffee cultiv8on began in d Americas in d early 1700s.Most of d coffee trees of d Western Hemisphere R said 2 b descended frm a single plant. It was carried frm a botanical garden in France 2 d island of Martinique in d West Indies by Captain Gabriel Mathieu de Clieu, a young military officer. He kept d tree alive during an arduous voyage by sharing with it his limited r8on of drinking w8r. Coffee was 1st grown in Brazilin 1729.Social organiz8on is d family as it is primarily d family dat teaches d child, imparting values & cus2ms dat condition an individual’s behaviour 4 a lifetime. Unlike Asia & Africa, d extended, 3-gener8on family was a gr8 rarity in western & central Europe by 1700 & it may never have even been common. European society was domin8d by l8 marriage combined with a nuclear-family household which may have fostered & required a pattern of self-reliance & independence.Many boys & girls would leave their home. If d boy was lucky he was admitted 2 a guild, where he would b apprenticed 2 a craftsman 4 7 or 4teen years 2 learn a trade. During dat time he would nt b permitted 2 marry, but if he were lucky he might eventually b admitted 2 a guild & establish his economic independence. 4 most boys though life was 2ugh as dey flo8d frm 1 2ugh job 2 another & were subject 2 economic fluctu8ons & unemployment. Most girls worked in others’ households as servants where dey were often nt tre8d well. If ol went well however, she would find a m8 & b able 2 save some m1y 4 parents & marriage.”illegitimacy explosion” btwn 1750 & 1850 on d heels of d emerging cottage industry & movement 2 d cities in search of jobs as gre8r independence & freedom was found by young ppl as dey escaped d confines of village tradition. Dis movement away frm d village also seemed 2 encourage marriage 4 luv rather than economic consider8ons.Infant mortality was hi as 1 out of evry 5 children was sure 2 die due 2 infectious diseases of d chest & s2mach, & many died of dehydr8on brought on by diarrhea. Dis problem was further aggrav8d by a society dat was domin8d by adult indifference, neglect, & abuse. 1770’s however, business was getting 2o gud. In St. Petersburg in d early 9teenth century, 25 000 children were in foundling hospital care, & it was receiving 5000 new babies a year. In Paris fully a 3rd of ol babies born were immedi8ly aband1d 2 d foundling home by their mothers. Finally in London competition 4 space in d foundling homes soon became so gr8 dat it led “2 d disgraceful scene of women scrambling & fighting 2 get 2 d door, dat dey might b of d 4tun8 few 2 reap d benefit of d Asylum.” Despite dis, d foundling hospitals became a favourite charity of d rich & powerful, & could even b said 2 have been a gud example of Christian charity & social concern in an age of gr8 poverty & inequality/ d pueblo revolt Expansion on d northern frontier of New Spain was also motiv8d by rival European powers. Wen France established colonies in Louisiana, d Spanish crown countered with settlements in Texas. Similarly, wen motiv8d by d possibility of a Russian threat on d Pacific coast, d Spaniards began colonies in Louisiana, Texas, & Upper Cali4nia (d area corresponding 2 d U.S. St8 of Cali4nia). Throughout d 18th century there were incessant boundary disputes btwn Spain, Britain, France, & subsequently d United St8s, & some terri2ries changed hands several times.1680 d ppl known collectively as “Pueblos” rebelled against their Spanish overlords in d American Southwest. Spaniards had domin8d dem, their lives, their land, & their souls 4 8 decades. D Spanish had established & maintained their rule with terror, beginning with Juan de Oñ8’s invasion in 1598. Wen d ppl of Acoma resisted, Oñ8 ordered dat 1 leg b chopped frm evry man over fifteen & d rest of d popul8on b enslaved, setting a pattern dat lasted 4-score years. Now, rising virtually as 1, d Pueblos drove out Spanish soldiers & authorities. D rebels allowed many Spaniards 2 flee, but 20-1 Franciscan priests died @ their hands, & dey sacked mission churches across their land. It 2ok twelve years 4 Spanish troops 2 reconquer Pueblo country. Dey never did conquer d Hopi, who had been d westernmost contribu2rs 2 d rebellion. Revolt’s dimensions was religious. Frm Pecos Pueblo near d edge of d gr8 Plains 2 Acoma & Zuni in western New Mexico, Pueblo ppl had had enough of Christianity, after 8 decades of living in ? His2rian Ramón Gutiérrez hs described as an imposed theocr8c u2pia. Backed by armed 4ce & nt reluctant 2 use d whip, Catholic missionaries had set out 2 destroy d ancestral Pueblo world in evry respect, including ? Ppl could believe & how dey could marry, work, live their lives, & pray. Wen d rebels could capture Franciscan priests, dey killed dem, sometimes after 2rturing dem. Dey destroyed Catholic images, 2re down mission churches, & defiled d vessels of d Catholic Mass. Dey put an end 2 marriages on Christian terms. Dey res2red d kivas where Pueblo men had honored their ancestral Kachinas. With Catholic symbols & Spanish practices g1, d Pueblos set out 2 res2re d lives their ances2rs had lived.Also known as Popé’s Rebellion, killed over 400 Spaniards & drove d remaining 2,000 Spanish settlers south 2ward Mexico. Participants in d rebellion also destroyed many mission churches in an ef4t 2 diminish Catholic physical presence on Pueblo land.Pueblo Revolt of 1680 drove out d Spanish 4 12 years—& saved many Indigenous cultures frm being wiped out. Nearly 100 years be4 d American Revolution, another war of independence 2ok place on American soil—against Spanish colonizers. Pueblo Revolt holds gr8 his2rical significance coz it helped ensure d survival of Pueblo cultural traditions, lands, languages, religions, & sovereignty./Glorious Revolution is a term used 2 describe d peaceful way in which Parliament asserted its rights over d monarchy in 1688. Dis Factsheet begins with a chronology of d events dat 2ok place btwn 1685 & 1689 starting with d death of Charles II & culmin8ng in d Bill of Rights in 1689.King James II fled as William of Orange & his troops marched 2 London, effectively abdic8ng d thr1 thru his actions. Dis led 2 d British Parliament declaring dat William of Orange & his wife Mary would b co-regents, ruling d British Empire 2gether.D Glorious Revolution led 2 d establishment of an English n8on dat limited d power of d king & provided protections 4 English subjects. In Oc2ber 1689, d same year dat William & Mary 2ok d thr1, d 1689 Bill of Rights established a constitutional monarchy.Classical liberal ideas were nt noticeable in European politics til d early 16th century//classical liberalism hs a considerable “prehis2ry” reaching back 2 d Middle Ages & even earlier. In d Middle Ages d rights & responsibilities of individuals were determined by their place in a hierarchical social system dat placed gr8 stress upon acquiescence & con4mity. Under d impact of d slow commercializ8on & urbaniz8on of Europe in d l8r Middle Ages, d intellectual ferment of d Renaissance, & d spread of Protestantism in d 16th century, d old feudal str8fic8on of society gradually began 2 dissolve, leading 2 a fear of instability so powerful dat monarchical absolutism was viewed as d only remedy 2 civil dissension. By d end of d 16th century, d authority of d papacy had been broken in most of northern Europe, & rulers tried 2 consolid8 d unity of their realms by en4cing con4mity either 2 Roman Catholicism or 2 d ruler’s preferred version of Protestantism.30 Years’ War (1618–48), which did immense damage 2 much of Europe. Where no group succeeded in wholly rooting out & destroying its enemies, 2ler8on was gradually accepted as d lesser of 2 evils; in some countries where 1 creed triumphed, it was accepted dat having little concern with citizens’ beliefs was harmful 2 prosperity & gud order.English philosophers Thomas Hobbes & John Locke. In Leviathan (1651), Hobbes argued dat d absolute power of d sovereign was ultim8ly justified by d consent of d governed, who agreed, in a hypothetical social contract, 2 obey d sovereign in ol matters in exchange 4 a guarantee of peace & security. Locke also held a social-contract theory of government, but he maintained dat d parties 2 d contract could nt reasonably place themselves under d absolute power of a ruler./The American Revolution was an epic political and military struggle waged between 1765 and 1783 when 13 of Britain’s North American colonies rejected its imperial rule. The protest began in opposition to taxes levied without colonial representation by the British monarchy and Parliament.Also called the U.S. War of Independence—was the insurrection fought between 1775 and 1783 through which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies threw off British rule to establish the sovereign United States of America, founded with the Declaration of Independence in 1776/French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval that began in 1787 and ended in 1799. It sought to completely change the relationship between the rulers and those they governed and to redefine the nature of political power.France was on the brink of bankruptcy due to its involvement in the American Revolution and King Louis XVI’s extravagant spending. This led to a people’s revolt against the inequalities of French society, the corruption of royal officials, and despair owing to widespread economic hardship.Watershed event in world history that began in 1789 and ended in the late 1790s with the ascent of Napoleon Bonaparte.Try as she might, Marie Antoinette (1755-93) found insufficient diversion in her life at the great court of Versailles. When she was fourteen, she had married the heir to the French throne, the future Louis XVI./labourers.// L8n wars causes 3 centuries of colonial rule, independence came rather suddenly 2 most of Spanish & Portuguese America. Btwn 1808 & 1826 ol of L8n America except d Spanish colonies of Cuba & Puer2 Rico slipped out of d hands of d Iberian powers who had ruled d region since d conquest.Spanish Bourbons in d 18th century provoked gr8 instability in d rel8ons btwn d rulers & their colonial subjects in d Americas. Many Creoles (those of Spanish parentage but who were born in America) felt Bourbon policy 2 b an unfair attack on their wealth, political power, & social status.Creoles reacted angrily against d crown’s preference 4 peninsulars(Those born on d Iberian Peninsula) in administr8ve positions & its declining support of d caste system & d Creoles’ privileged status within it.These ideas were nt, strictly speaking, causes of independence. Creoles selectively adapted rather than simply embraced d thought dat had in4med revolutions in North America & France.L8n America tended 2 shy away frm d more socially radical European doctrines. Moreover, d influence of those ideologies was sharply restricted; with few exceptions only small circles of educ8d, urban elites had access 2 Enlightenment thought.Napoleon turned on his Spanish allies in 1808, events 2ok a disastrous turn 4 Spain & its dominion in d Americas. Shortly after Charles had abdic8d in favour of his son Ferdinand, Napoleon had dem both impris1d. With these figures of legitim8 authority in his power, d French ruler tried 2 shatter Spanish independence. In d process he set off a political crisis dat swept across both Spain & its possessions. D Spanish political tradition centred on d figure of d monarch, yet, with Charles & Ferdinand removed frm d scene, d hub of ol political authority was missing./ simply, the Haitian Revolution, a series of conflicts between 1791 and 1804, was the overthrow of the French regime in Haiti by the Africans and their descendants who had been enslaved by the French and the establishment of an independent country founded and governed by former slaves.December 1801, First Consul Napoléon Bonaparte sent a massive expedition to the French colony of Saint-Domingue (today: Haiti). His goal was to restore direct French rule and overthrow Toussaint Louverture, a former slave who, as governor general of Saint-Domingue, had been suspected of plotting independence.Precipitated the end of slavery not only in Saint-Domingue, but in all French colonies. Napoleon Bonaparte dispatched a large expeditionary force of French soldiers and warships to the island, led by Bonaparte’s brother-in-law Charles Leclerc, to restore French rule. They were under secret instructions to restore slavery, at least in the formerly Spanish-held part of the island./ industrialization England, which was by 1750, 1 of d wealthiest n8ons in d world & controlled an empire dat covered 1-quarter of d world’s landmass. It started with England’s textile industry, which was struggling 2 produce goods cheaper & faster 4 growing consumer markets. Making cloth, by hand, 4 pants, shirts, socks, bedspreads, & other domestic items had always required lots of skill & time.Fac2ry workers solved many of d difficulties in textile production. As d scale of production grew,d fac2ry emerged as a centralized loc8on where wage laborers could work. Cot2n textiles had many production advantages over other types of cloth. D 1st textile fac2ry in gr8Britain was actually 4 making silk, but since only wealthy ppl could af4d d product, production remained very low. Cot2n, on d other hand, was far less expensive. It was also stronger & more easily colored & washed than wool or linen.Cities grew coz of d influx of ppl desiring 2 take advantage of d fac2ry jobs available in urban areas. Urbaniz8on extended industrializ8on as fac2ries were built 2 take advantage of urban work4ces & markets.// fac2rs Increased food production 2 support an increasing popul8on.More ppl frm d countryside being freed up 2 work 4 wages in d new cities.Increased demand 4 textile products.Such as central banks, s2ck markets, & joint-s2ck companies – encouraged ppl, especially in Northern Europe, 2 take risks with investments, trade, & new technologies.Encouraged scholars & craftspeople 2 apply new scientific thinking 2 mechanical &t echnological challenges.Quickened d pace & cheapened d cost of transport8on of raw m8rials & finished products.Plentiful in England & Western Europe.Used in enormou quantities as a source of power – particularly 4 d steam-powered machinery in textile fac2ries & locomotives// grow industrializ8on al1 cannot account 4 d rapid growth of d European popul8on during d 9teenth century (dis growth was underway be4 industrializ8on), it is believed 2 have been responsible 4 changing patterns of popul8on density on d continent. Btwn 1750 & 1914, most industrialized n8ons (England, Belgium, France, Germany) also acquired d highest popul8on densities. Living conditions skilled workers, d quality of life decreased a gr8 deal in d 1st 60 years of d Industrial Revolution. Skilled weavers, 4 example, lived well in pre-industrial society as a kind of middle class. Dey tended their gardens, worked on textiles in their homes or small shops, & raised farm animals. Dey were their bosses. However, after d Industrial Revolution, d living conditions 4 skilled weavers significantly deterior8d. Dey could no longer live @ their own pave or supplement their income with gardening, spinning, or communal harvesting.M8rial standards of living were in some ways,improving more m8rial goods were produced, so dey were available @ lower costs, & fac2ries provided a variety of employment opportunities nt previously available. @ d same time, working conditions were often horrible, & d pay was terrible, & it was often difficult 4 unskilled workers 2 move 2 higher skill levels & escape d working class. D traditional protections of d medieval & early modern eras, such as guilds & mand8d wage-&-price standards, were disappearing.New middle class, families became a sanctuary frm stressful industrial life. D home remained separ8 frm work & 2ok on d role of emotional support, where women of d house cre8d a moral & spiritual safe harbor away frm d rough-&-tumble industrial world outside.Steam power was 1 of d most significant developments of d Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) in Britain.Power of steam was 1st harnessed 4 a pump by Thomas Savery (c. 1650-1715), p8nted in 1698, but its power was limited. D 1st important principle is dat he8d w8r produces steam which is 1500 times more voluminous. D steam, wen it cools & condenses back 2 w8r, then dram8cally reduces in volume & cre8s a partial vacuum.Reduced production costs, made profits higher, & permitted mass-produced consumer goods 2 b cheaper, but these benefits came @ a cost./Traditional industries like hand-weaving were ol but destroyed by d arrival of steam-powered fac2ries who bred & cared 4 horses ol suffered badly as trains 2ok their business. Many ppl lost d livelihood dey & their parents & grandparents had depended upon 2 live. Men, especially, lost their jobs as fac2ry owners preferred 2 employ cheaper women & child labourers.//labourers.// L8n wars causes 3 centuries of colonial rule, independence came rather suddenly 2 most of Spanish & Portuguese America. Btwn 1808 & 1826 ol of L8n America except d Spanish colonies of Cuba & Puer2 Rico slipped out of d hands of d Iberian powers who had ruled d region since d conquest.Spanish Bourbons in d 18th century provoked gr8 instability in d rel8ons btwn d rulers & their colonial subjects in d Americas. Many Creoles (those of Spanish parentage but who were born in America) felt Bourbon policy 2 b an unfair attack on their wealth, political power, & social status.Creoles reacted angrily against d crown’s preference 4 peninsulars(Those born on d Iberian Peninsula) in administr8ve positions & its declining support of d caste system & d Creoles’ privileged status within it.These ideas were nt, strictly speaking, causes of independence. Creoles selectively adapted rather than simply embraced d thought dat had in4med revolutions in North America & France.L8n America tended 2 shy away frm d more socially radical European doctrines. Moreover, d influence of those ideologies was sharply restricted; with few exceptions only small circles of educ8d, urban elites had access 2 Enlightenment thought.Napoleon turned on his Spanish allies in 1808, events 2ok a disastrous turn 4 Spain & its dominion in d Americas. Shortly after Charles had abdic8d in favour of his son Ferdinand, Napoleon had dem both impris1d. With these figures of legitim8 authority in his power, d French ruler tried 2 shatter Spanish independence. In d process he set off a political crisis dat swept across both Spain & its possessions. D Spanish political tradition centred on d figure of d monarch, yet, with Charles & Ferdinand removed frm d scene, d hub of ol political authority was missing./Simón Bolívar was a Venezuelan soldier & st8sman who played a central role in d South American independence movement. Bolívar served as president of Gran Colombia (1819–30) & as dicta2r of Peru (1823–26). D country of Bolivia is named 4 him.Simón Bolívar penned 2 political tre8ses—d Manifies2 de Cartagena (“Cartagena Manifes2”) & d Carta de Jamaica (“leta frm Jamaica”)—encouraging d ppl of South America 2 rebel against Spanish colonial rule. Bolívar himself led multiple expeditionary 4ces against d Spaniards, & btwn 1819 & 1822 he successfully liber8d 3 terri2ries—New Granada (Colombia & Panama), Venezuela, & Qui2 (Ecuador)—frm Spanish rule.D south proceeded another powerful 4ce, dis 1 directed by d more circumspect José de San Martín. After difficult conquests of their home regions, d 2 movements spread d cause of independence thru other terri2ries, finally meeting on d central Pacific coast. Frm there, troops under northern generals finally stamped out d last vestiges of loyalist resistance in Peru & Bolivia by 1826./independence of Mexico, like dat of Peru, d other major central area of Spain’s American empire, came l8. As was d case in Lima, Mexican cities had a powerful segment of Creoles & peninsular Spaniards whom d old imperial system had served well. Mexican Creoles.1810 d Bajío region produced a unique movement led by a radical priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Wen officials discovered d conspiracy dat Hidalgo & other Creoles had been planning in Querétaro, d priest appealed directly 2 d indigenous & mestizo populace. A rich agricultural & mining z1, d Bajío had recently underg1 difficult economic times dat hit those rural & urban workers particularly hard. Thus many of dem responded eagerly 2 Hidalgo’s famous Gri2 de Dolores (“Cry of Dolores”). Although framed as an appeal 4 resistance 2 d peninsulars, d Gri2 was in effect a call 4 independence.Hidalgo prevented d movement frm entering Mexico City.// Imperialism & coloniz8on//imperialism & coloinalism 1000 members of 10 tribes frm d Philippines were moved 2 St. Louis in2 a living zoo as part of d Fair. While d World’s Fair–& d Expos in d last 50 years–mainly focused on technological innov8on, dis exhibit was designed 2 teach Americans about d Philippines, which had been conquered by d United St8s in 1898. 1.5 billion ppl worldwide, ranged frm small circus acts & “freak shows” 2 giant world’s fairs held in major capitals. Dey perpetu8d theories of white superiority & racist beliefs dat persist 2 dis day. Spectacles like d 1904 exhibition were often organized by impresarios who 2ok troupes of unpaid or underpaid ppl around d world: Congolese ppl were shown in d United St8s, 4 instance, & 1st N8ons & Inuit Peoples were shown in Brussels. D individuals involved were displayed behind fences & barriers, sometimes “half naked, dressed in animal skins, & per4ming degrading activities,”Belgium was particularly active in organizing degrading human spectacles. King Leopold — who also ruled over ? Is now d Democr8c Republic of Congo 4 much of his reign, which lasted frm 1865 2 1909 — enslaved d Congolese popul8on, 4cing d ppl there 2 produce rubber 4 his personal profit, a process in which hundreds of thousands, if nt millions, were killed & maimed.4 Leopold, exhibitions were a propaganda 2ol 2 persuade Belgians of coloniz8on’s benefits & 2 raise m1y 4 his ambitious plans 2 modernize his kingdom. In 1885, d king put on a “Universal Exhibition” in d Belgian city of Antwerp & had 144 Congolese ppl brought over 2 popul8 a display village of 11 huts & a grot2. Pho2graphs show dem posing outside d thatched dwellings in loincloths or animal skins, holding spears or ceremonial instruments. 7 of dem died in Belgium.Wen European powers partiti1d Africa @ d Conference of Berlin in 1884, Belgium claimed d Congo. In 1885, d Belgian parliament passed a resolution dat made d Congo d personal property of Leopold. Leopold’s motiv8on was nt 2 Christianize d Congo. Instead, he gradually increased his influence in d region in order 2 gain access 2 resources dat might aid Belgian industry.His agents regularly used violence, rape, & mutil8on 2 ensure compliance. D practice of cutting off hands as punishment was so commonplace dat hands became a pseudo-currency in d region. Due 2 these methods of control & mistreatment, d Congo’s popul8on decreased frm approxim8ly 20 million 2 12 million during Leopold’s ownership of d region.East India Trading Company smuggled opium frm British-controlled India 2 Chinese ports. Despite d fact dat d Emperor banned d import of opium in 1799, d smuggling c….By 1804, British trade of t & opium was @ a surplus. By 1838, millions of Chinese ppl were opium addicts. As U examine d following sources on d Opium War, consider d variety of his2rical perspectives on d war, in China & Japan, & gr8 Britain.1st Opium War (1839 2 1842) was largely determined by d technologically superior British navy, which had ironclad vessels compared 2 d wooden ships of d Chinese fleet. D Treaty of Nanjing (1842) was largely designed 2 ensure British access 2 Chinese ports; it also opened China up 2 further western encroachment. Viewed d British treatment of Chinese in d 19th century as a human rights viol8on. She explains her father’s reaction 2 his meeting with Margaret Thatcher, d British Prime Minister in d 1980s. Japanesse His account is largely sympathetic 2 d Chinese, & he seems 2 understand d extent of British military might, even including a map dat shows Britain’s terri2ries @ d time. Much like d Chinese sources he relies on, his work describes gr8 Chinese vic2ries & British losses dat R largely fictitious or greatly exagger8d.//isms & ologies N8onalism Be4 d 19th century, ppl might have been loyal 2 a local leader or a king, or shared cultural values within a city or an empire; rarely, however, did dey have a n8onal identity. Dis changed in d 19th century, as various societies around d world became increasingly n8onalist. N8onalism, 1 of d most influential 4ces of d 19th century, is d hi value placed on a shared identity based on geography, culture, & politics.N8ons & n8onalism R nt very old but have had dram8c effects on how we view d world & each other. With d decline in d power of religion & religious authorities, ppl looked 4 a new way 2 identify themselves, dey found dis with their n8ons.We often think our n8on is an important part of our identity—I’m “American,” “Canadian,” “Italian, “Chinese,” & so on. But ? Does dat really mean? How RU part of yur country/n8on? Well, n8onalism begins with d idea dat d whole of human society is divided in2 distinct, au2nomous groups called n8ons. Feminism Enlightenment & social change in d 18th century set d stage 4 feminism in d 19th century. Some 18th century writers, such as Olympe de Gouges & Mary Wollst1craft, openly called 4 gre8r rights 4 women; still, while their work was widely read, it did nt necessarily lead directly 2 change. In d 19th century, women were initially involved in social movements such as abolition, temperance, & other movements dat were considered part of d “woman’s sphere”. 4 example, women’s involvement in d temperance movement was considered appropri8 coz it was seen as an extension of women’s familial & social roles: by calling 4 d banning of alcohol, temperance leaders were acting as mothers, protecting wives & children frm d neg8ve impact of men’s drinking.Social activism transl8d in2 a movement 2 recognize d rights of women. Though d movement differed depending on loc8on, it usually focused on d legal status & rights of women, primarily women’s suffrage. There were also several intern8onal congresses held 2 2 cre8 solidarity & focus on important issues. @ 1 of these congresses in 1888, d Intern8onal Council of Women was 4med, an organiz8on dat is still active 2day.Susan Brownell Anthony became 1 of d most visible leaders of d women’s suffrage movement. Frm an early age, Anthony was inspired by d Quaker belief dat every1 was equal under God. Dat idea guided her throughout her life. She had 7 brothers & sisters, many of whom became activists 4 justice & emancip8on of slaves. After many years of teaching, Anthony returned 2 her family who had moved 2 New York St8. There she met William Lloyd Garrison & Frederick Douglass, who were frens of her father. Listening 2 dem moved Susan 2 want 2 do more 2 help end slavery. She became an abolition activist, even though most ppl thought it was improper 4 women 2 give speeches in public. Anthony made many passion8 speeches against slavery 1872, Anthony was arrested 4 voting. She was tried & fined $100 4 her crime. Dis made many ppl angry & brought n8onal attn 2 d suffrage movement. In 1876, she led a protest @ d 1876 Centennial of our n8on’s independence. Romanticism was both a result of, and a response to the Enlightenment. Romantics valued individual rights, democratic values, and progress. However, they moved away from the Enlightenment’s focus on reason. Instead, they embraced emotion, feelings, and the natural world. The individual was a potential hero who, more often than not, suffered because his/her emotions were at odds with the unfeeling, mechanized world. Romantic painters, novelists, and poets created art that embodied these elements.Marxism Industrialization changed the population distribution of Europe. As more factories opened, more people from rural communities flocked to cities for employment. For example, while the population of England increased by 400% in the 19th century, the population of London increased by almost 800% during the same time. Industrial workers found themselves working for low pay in dangerous conditions, and living in densely populated cities with insufficient infrastructure. Karl Marx was a German philosopher and sociologist living in England; thus, he witnessed the Industrial Revolution first hand. He and his co-author, Friedrich Engels, wrote the Communist Manifesto, which was a response to these conditions. In the Manifesto, Marx argued that history is the ongoing struggle between classes. In the past, the struggle had been between, for example, lords and serfs; in the 19th century, he argued that the struggle was between the bourgeoisie, the new rich, and the proletariat, the workers. Marx argued that a classless society could only be achieved by the unification of the proletariat against their oppressors/// Amistad Two Spanish plantation owners, Pedro Montes and Jose Ruiz, purchased 53 Africans and put them aboard the Cuban schooner Amistad to ship them to a Caribbean plantation. On July 1, 1839, the Africans seized the ship, killed the captain and the cook, and ordered Montes and Ruiz to sail to Africa//Civil War (in chronological order, South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over slavery. Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture— mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour. Abraham Lincoln, the candidate of the explicitly antislavery Republican Party, won the 1860 presidential election, seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the Confederate States of America.War upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a naval blockade of the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally constitute a sovereign country but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance $2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the writ of habeas corpus, first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. This meant that anyone could be detained and thrown in prison for an indefinite period of time. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000. Confederate coastline of 3,500 miles (5,600 km) seemed to defy blockade, and the Confederate president, Jefferson Davis, hoped to receive decisive foreign aid and intervention. Confederate soldiers were fighting to achieve a separate and independent country based on what they called “Southern institutions,” the chief of which was the institution of slavery. So the Southern cause was not a lost one; indeed, other countries—most notably the United States itself in the American Revolution against Britain— had won independence against equally heavy odds April 1862 Congress abolished slavery in the District of Columbia and paid owners in the district about $300 on average for each slave. Three months later Congress passed the Second Confiscation Act, which mandated that any Confederate civilian or military official who did not surrender within 60 days would have his slaves freed. Two days after that, Congress banned slavery from the territories. The assassination occurred only days after the surrender at Appomattox Court House of Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia to Union forces led by Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, which effectively ended the American Civil War. A member of one of America’s most renowned families of actors, John Wilkes Booth grew up in the border state of Maryland but was particularly popular as an actor in Richmond, Va., and considered himself a Southerner. Having promised his mother that he would not fight for the Confederacy, he remained in the North during the Civil War, and his hatred of abolitionists and Lincoln deepened. On April 14, 1865, distraught over the collapse of the Confederacy, Booth learned that the president would be attending a performance of Our American Cousin that evening at Ford’s Theatre. Gathering his fellow conspirators, Booth outlined a plan to assassinate not just Lincoln but also Vice Pres. Andrew Johnson and Secretary of State William Seward. That night he shot Lincoln in the back of the head once with a .44-calibre derringer and leapt from the president’s box to the stage below, breaking his left leg in the fall. Lincoln died the next morning. On April 26, in the process of being apprehended by federal troops after a massive manhunt, Booth died, having been shot either by a soldier or by himself.