Middle age peninsular kingdoms

Posted on Dec 3, 2023 in Geography


*Economic changes*

The 15th century is considered a period of transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age. This was accompanied by a period of economic and demographic growth which led to the following changes: _• Increased artisanal production. _ this was the result of reduced control on part of the guilds and a rise in demand due to population growth._• Agricultural growth_. Due to the rising demand for food, farming techniques improved and new lands were used for farming._• Urban growth_. Although they rarely exceded 30,000 inhabitants,
cities became industrial and comercial centres. Some of the most important cities in Europe were Venice, Sevilla, Lyon and Antwerp._• Expanded trade_. Medieval trading routes were revived and new long distance routes were opened that were linked to luxury goods like silk,
precios metals and spices.
_• Development of comercial capitalism_. Exchange agents, bankers and moneylenders arose, introducing financial practices that
reduced the amount of physical cash required for transactions. This led to more comercial security and different methods of payment.


*Demographic and social changes*

_Population growth_There was an intense population growth in Europe throughout the 15thcentury due to an increase in agricultural production. The quality of food improved and there were fewer epidemics. As the population increased cities became bigger._Society_
Economic and demographic growth produced significant social changes, although the divisions of society into estates was maintained.
•Clergy and nobility were still the most privileged social groups since they did not pay taxes. They held the most important administrative posts and they owned most of the land. However, they had to give up part of
their political power to the king.
Many bankers and merchants became very wealthy through their
comercial activities. They formed a powerful bourgeoisie that played a
key role in many parts of Europe. Important families, like the Medicis in Italy and the Fuggers in Germany, acquired great social and economic influence.
• Peasants in some European regions were liberated from the feudal lords and became free, but the feudal system was still used in many other regions.



*Authoritarian monarchy*

The main political transformation of the Modern Age was a stronger
authoritarian monarchy over the urban nobility and aristocracy. A new organisational model was created in which the king had more direct power._• National territory_.
The monarchs considered the kingdom to be patrimony of the royal family that needed to be preserved and defended against
posible attacks.• _Bureaucracy_.
It was created and managed by civil servants paid directly by the king to serve in his name. This permitted a more effective control
over the territory._• Permanent court_.
A permanent court was established that governed the
kingdom, ending the travelling courts of the Middle Ages._• Permanent army_.
This profesional army was funded by the monarch and worked only under his orders. Private armies organised by the nobility lost their importance.

_• Diplomatic service_


It was made up of ambassadors who represented the monarchs in other countries in order to ensure foreign relations._• Taxation system_.
It was designed to collect taxes to help pay for the
increased costs of the new state system.

*The great European monarchies

At the beginning of the Modern Age, kingdoms in Europe used elither war or marriage alliances to increase their political strength. In these aliances. Political enemies promised the marriage of their children as a way to guarantee future peace between their countries. Naturaly, 3
marriage of state was a way to achieve territorial expansion at a much lower price than war.
_France_ After the Hundred Years’ War against England, the French monarchy began a process to strengthen royal power, especially  under  the reigns of kings Louis XI and François I.
_England_ During the 15th century, there was a Civil War for the English throne between the families of York and Lancaster. The nobility became weak and the monarchy grew stronger,especially during the reign of Henry VIII.
_Russia_ Ivan III the Great conquered vast territories and carried out intense expansionism, adopting the title of Grand Prince of all Russia. _Italian Peninsula_ Trade and banking made territories economically prosperous. The Papal States and the Republic of Venice were the most important.
_Holy Roman Empire_ This empire covered a large number of territories, including Germany and Northern Italy. These kingdoms had considerable autonomy and were led by an elected emperor.
_Spain_ The Catholic Monarchs unified all the Iberian Peninsula except for Portugal.
_Portugal_ John Il established his authority over the aristocracy and launched overseas expeditions.



. Territorial expansion in the Iberian Peninsula

The Catholic Monarchs hoped to unite all the kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula under their crown. They adopted policies in:
_• Granada_. The Nasrid Kingdom was in the middle of a Civil War and the Catholic Monarchs took advantage by conquering Muslim lands. After ten years of war, King Boabdil surrendered in 1492. This marked the end of the Reconquista. The surrender of Granada in 1492._Navarra_. In 1512, King Fernando used his alliance with France as an
excuse to invade the kingdom of Navarra and annex it to Castilla, although he maintained its laws and institutions._Portugal_. The Catholic Monarchs created links with the Portuguese monarchy through royal marriages, but Portugal only became part of the monarchy later on during The reing of Felipe II

Foreign policies*


The foreign policies of the Catholic Monarchs looked after the interests of both crowns in two ways. A Marriage policy. The Catholic Monarchs had the goal of isolating France. They carried out a marriage policy with their sons and daughters:
– Isabel and Maria to Manuel I of Portugal.
– Juan to Margaret of Habsburg.
– luana to Philip of Austria The Fair’, the heir to the Duchy of Burgundy
and the Earldom of Flanders.
– Catalina to King Henry VIII of England • International expansion. This served the interests of both crowns, which considerably increased their domains.
Atlantic expansion The priority in Castilla was to control trade routes
and to conclude the occupation of the Canary Islands, which was crucial to exploring the route to The west indies

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*The new authoritarian monarchy* .
The Councils consisted of lawyers and officials that advised the monarchs. The most important were the

Council of Castilla, the Council of Aragón and the Council of War. The royal secretaries were close
advisers to the monarchs, serving as liaisons hetween the diterent councils.
The Corte was the body of representation for the
nobility, and also the church and the bourgeoisie; Castillian, Aragonese, Catalan and Valencian
Cortes retained significant power in their respective regions. It was one of the political goals of the
Catholic Monarchs to get the support of the Cortes and, at the same time, to diminish their power of vetoing the monarchs’ decisions.
In the cities, the figure of corregidor presided the town hall on behalf of the monarchs, and controlled the power. The permanent army were profesional soldiers in service to the monarchs. The Catholic Monarchs also created the Santa Hermandad, which maintained social order in rural
areas. They were an armed corps in charge of prosecuting criminals. The figure of viceroy was created to represent the king and queen in each of the kingdoms of the Crown.
The Court of Justice, also named Real Audiencia or Chancillería, was created to ensure justice and to make it
more effective. The monarchy guaranteed a regular income by creating new taxes and establishing a central tax office called the Contaduría
Real de Hacienda.

*Religious unity*

The main objective of the Catholic Monarchs was religious unity, which inspired policies such as:
_The Inquisition_ It was created in 1478 with the aim to end heresy and prosecute those who
turned away from Catholicism.
_Capitulaciones de Granada_
This treaty was signed by the Monarchs after the conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada. It allowed the Muslims to practise their religion in Granada. However, in 1499, Cardinal Cisneros forced imposed Christianity on the Muslims. Although some left the peninsula, most Muslims chose
baptism, and were called Moriscos afterwards._Expulsion of the Jews_ In 1492, the monarchy decreed the forced conversion of the Jews. Those who chose Christianity were called conversos, but those that did not were
persecuted and forced to leave the country that same year.



*Castilian expeditions*

Christopher Columbus (Cristóbal Colón) believed he could reach Asia by sailing west. He knew that the Earth was round, but he thought it was much smaller, so he wasn’t ever aware that he had discovered America. The Catholic Monarchs supported his project and signed the Capitulaciones de
Santa Fe, granting him privileges if he were successful. _1st voyage_
The three caravels, the Pinta, the Nina and the Santa Maria, departed from Palos de la Frontera (Huelva) on the 3rd of August 1492. They landed on the island of Guanahani (Bahamas) on the 12th of October and named it San
Salvador. Columbus visited more islands and founded the first settlements. _2nd, 3rd and 4th voyages _ Columbus explored the West Indies and Central America. Spain and Portugal competed over the control of the new route, until they signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. It established an imaginary line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde.


The Aztecs inhabited central Mexico. Their capital was Tenochtitlan When

the Spanish arrived, the Aztecs were the most powerful in the region. Thev had a great army, with which they had suppressed other Central American nations, forcing them to pay taxes.

Society


It was very hierarchical. Their main ruler was an emperor (tlatoani). Next was the nobility, the priests and finally the common people. They also had slaves.

Economy


It was based on growing corn, on trade and on tax revenues they received from their conquered territories.

Religion


They believed in many gods and even offered human sacrifices in their honour. Huitzilopochtli and Quetzalcoatl were their main gods.
Culture. They used pictograms to represent political, religious or administrative matters. Thev also had a complex calendar. Aztec artists could produce fine sculptures or build temples and palaces.
The Mayans inhabited the Yucatan Peninsula. Their civilisation established cities like Tikal or Palenque. It had reached its peak between the 3rd and 8th centiuries, By the time the Spanish arrived, Mayan culture was clearly in decline.

Society


They were organised in City-states, such as Mayapán. Mayan civilisation was hierarchical. It was based in important cities

Economy


It was based on corn, tomatoes, cOCoa, beans or pumpkin, which they grew in the jungle by felling and burning trees.

Religion


It was organised around its primary sources of sustenance,Such as corn. They offered sacrifices to their gods to protect their crops and ensure rain for their growth. 
Culture. It was very advanced. They used the number zero, had knowledge of astronomy, and a very complex calendar. They used hieroglyphics
the incas dominated the andes and had created great empire that included present-day Ecuador,peru,Bolivia, northern Chile and Argentina.They built an extensive network of roads connecting all the territories in the empire.

Society


The Incas had a hierarchical society. The emperor was both a leader and a god. Under him were the nobles and priests, and then the common people, who had to work the land and pay taxes to the emperor. A certain number of days out of the year, men were required to work for the state. This system was known as mita.

Economy


The economy was based on agriculture and mainly on corn and potatoes.They also domesticated animals for their meatand skin. They created elaborate pottery,textiles and metal objects of gold and copper.
Culture. They had large stone cities,beautiful temples
an advanced government, a detailed tax system and an intricate road system.

Religion


It was polytheistic.