Meteorology and Climatology
INTERFERENCE WITH CLIMOGRAMS:
With respect to total rainfall, the rainfall distribution throughout the year indicates the month of maximum and minimum rainfall. It also shows whether or not secondary maximum or minimum rainfall occurs.
With respect to temperature: the average annual temperature oscillation (or annual temperature range) is the difference between the average temperature of the warmest month and the average temperature of the coldest month.
It is also necessary to indicate whether there are periods of aridity. These are recognized on the graph when the rainfall is below the temperature curve. When there are periods of aridity, note whether they occur in summer or winter. You may recognize the climate based on the climograms because every climate has some typical features:
- The bell curve shape of the temperature line in the northern and southern hemispheres.
- The annual temperature range. A higher range indicates a greater distance from the equator. Conversely, as latitude and sea level decrease, so does the temperature range.
- The existence of a dry season in summer (Mediterranean climate) or winter (tropical climate). If it occurs throughout the year, the climate is arid.
- Climates with no dry season.
METEOROLOGICAL:
Meteorology studies the processes that occur in the troposphere on a scale of hundreds and thousands of miles and over intervals ranging from one to several days.
WEATHER PHENOMENON:
Weather phenomena are a result of the displacement of air masses and the heat exchange that occurs between them when they are at different temperatures. Convection is the vertical displacement of air masses. Advection is the horizontal displacement.
CONVECTION:
The vertical displacement of air masses may be due to different causes:
HEAT RISE:
Occurs when a mass of warm, moist air tends to ascend because it is less dense than the cold, dry air around it. Hurricanes, storms, and cold drops stem from heat rise.
- The intense sunlight of the tropics produces warming of water bodies.
- The higher the water temperature, the greater the amount of steam and latent heat in the air above it.
- The colder the air is at a higher altitude, the greater the thermal gradient established between the surface and the more violent the convection. The rising air currents can be very violent and exceed 200km/h.
- The condensation of moisture causes cloudiness, which causes heavy rainfall.
CONVERGENCE:
This occurs when two air masses converge in the convergence area and are forced to climb.
OROGRAPHICAL RISE:
Occurs when an air mass is forced to rise over a relief (Foehn effect).
ADVECTION:
The horizontal movement of air masses can be produced by:
- Temperature differences between the colder high latitudes and the warmer low latitudes, which cause the air to move north-south. The trade winds are the result of the surface movement of tropical air into the Equator.
- The oscillations of the air mass on both sides of the convergence zones. Storms and the warm and cold fronts associated with them are the result of these undulations of the surface area of contact between air masses.
- The air flowing from areas where atmospheric pressure is high to areas where the pressure is lower.
HUMIDITY:
The percentage of water vapor in the air, considering that 100% is the maximum it may contain.
DEW POINT:
The temperature at which water vapor can begin to condense as the air humidity reaches 100%. The saturation curve indicates the dew point reached for each absolute humidity.
WEATHER:
As an air mass rises, it is subject to diminishing pressure, so it expands. This expansion produces a cooling rate of 1°C for every 100m of ascent. This value is the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DAR).
Atmospheric instability may occur because an air mass is unstable when it is considerably warmer in the lower atmosphere than in the upper atmosphere.
If, during the ascent of an air mass, it crosses the dew point, the steam begins to condense. This process radiates heat and slows the cooling of the rising air, which then cools at a rate of about 0.5°C for every 100m of ascent. This is the Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate (MAR).
The Vertical Temperature Gradient (VTG) occurs when the air temperature increases with altitude instead of decreasing. In these situations, there is usually convection and the existence of an inversion layer at a certain height. They can also be formed simply if the VTG is lower than the DAR.
CLOUD AND PRECIPITATION:
As an air mass rises and cools, condensation of vapor forms clouds. Depending on how this rise occurs, there may be different types of clouds:
HORIZONTAL DEVELOPMENT CLOUDS:
They form when a warm air mass moves, pushing a cold air mass, which forces it to climb. When cold air masses are injected into the upper troposphere and the surface air is warm and very humid, convection is very violent, resulting in a cold drop, a tropical storm, or a cyclone.
CLOUDS OF VERTICAL DEVELOPMENT:
These originate when a cold air mass pushes another warm air mass, forcing it to rise. Then, active convection begins. Cumulonimbus clouds are storm clouds.
When the soil radiates the stored heat at night and cools the air in contact with it, and also if it contains moisture, it can condense to produce fog, dew, silage made on cold surfaces, or frost if it forms ice crystals.
METEOROLOGICAL MAPS:
Information obtained daily by meteorological observatories is reflected in meteorological maps. These maps can be of various types and are used for meteorological predictions.
AEREOLOGY:
Aerological phenomena are similar to meteorological phenomena in that they form the interface between air masses, but they occur on a more local scale and over shorter time intervals (minutes, hours).
THERMAL LOW:
On slopes exposed to the sun, air in contact with the soil slides along the slope until it detaches and forms columns of warm air: the thermal lift.
ANABATIC AND KATABATIC WINDS:
In valleys, the formation of thermal lift on the slopes creates suction, which creates a breeze that flows upstream through the valley: the anabatic breeze. When solar radiation ceases and the ground cools, cool air masses originate on the slopes and descend, creating a downward breeze in the valley: the katabatic breeze.
SEA BREEZE:
During the day, the air above the earth is hotter than the air located over the sea. The hot air tends to rise, drawing in the fresh air from the sea, creating the sea breeze. At night, the air over the sea is hotter, reversing the direction of the breeze.
URBAN HEAT ISLAND:
When there are situations of atmospheric stability and a city has a higher temperature than the surrounding area due to the low albedo of asphalt and buildings and the heat generated by motors, heating, appliances, and industries, this phenomenon is called the urban heat island effect.
RESTRICTION:
In areas surrounded by reliefs, the expulsion of warm air accumulated during the day in the valley occurs, so fresh air occupies the relief and a zone of warm air lies on top. In valleys and areas surrounded by reliefs, the accumulation of cold air may produce a local inversion situation that favors the accumulation of pollutants. If the meteorological situation is stable, the inversion can last for days.
AIR POLLUTANTS:
Air pollutants are substances that impact air quality by altering its persistence and may also cause damage to persons or their interests.
PRIMARY POLLUTANTS:
A primary pollutant is emitted into the atmosphere from an emission source that can be natural or anthropogenic.
SECONDARY POLLUTANT:
A secondary pollutant is formed in the atmosphere by chemical reactions from other substances and other factors.
SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SUBSTANCES:
The susceptibility of substances refers to the accumulation of pollutants in the atmosphere. Its value is calculated by adding the values of the broadcast and production of pollutants in the atmosphere and subtracting the amount that is evacuated, degrades, or transforms into other substances.
SIDE EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS:
SMOG:
Smog is a red or gray haze formed by a mixture of primary and secondary pollutants. Photochemical smog is characterized by its ozone content (a highly oxidizing gas that causes irritation and damage to vegetation).
Acid smog contains sulfuric acid and nitric acid, which are deposited in acid rain.
CFCs:
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are primary pollutants that deteriorate the ozone layer.
IMPACT ON THE ATMOSPHERE:
An impact on the atmosphere can be detected when the air pollutants listed are present. Air pollution encompasses both impacts on air quality and impacts on human comfort. Contamination is the presence of matter or energy that implies a risk, harm, or serious nuisance to people and property of any kind.
LOCAL AND REGIONAL IMPACTS:
Smog causes a local impact that affects humans, animals, and plants.
MASSIVE SUDDEN RELEASE:
Massive sudden releases of pollutants are high-energy events (explosions, large fires) that produce regional impacts.
ACID RAIN:
Acid rain, formed by precipitation with a pH < 5.6, is a regional impact. The primary pollutants produced by industry are transported by prevailing winds to remote areas where they precipitate as acid rain.
OVERALL IMPACT:
OZONE LAYER HOLE:
Stratospheric ozone is destroyed by chlorine from CFCs.
GLOBAL WARMING:
The use of fossil fuels, forest fires, waste incineration, etc.. They produce intense and continuous emission of greenhouse gases. These gases absorb infrared radiation emitted x Earth, slowing its cooling q what produces the progressive increase in T ° average atmosphere. This results in the disruption of climatic zones, the violence of weather phenomena and aereologicos …. Also affects ocean currents, alters the composition of the biosphere …