Metaphysics, Science, Evolution, and Human Culture
Metaphysics and Science
Metaphysics aims to reach beyond the physical world and its particularities. We can distinguish different kinds of science:
- Formal Science: Deals with abstract concepts and does not attempt to explain empirical phenomena.
- Empirical Science: Deals with observable data and seeks to explain the world. It is divided into two categories:
- Natural Science: Focuses on natural phenomena and non-human entities.
- Social Science: Focuses on human beings and society.
Argumentation
Argumentation involves providing proof, where a conclusion is drawn from premises.
- Deductive Reasoning: The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.
- Inductive Argument: The conclusion possibly follows from the premises, but other conclusions are also possible.
Theories of Evolution
Fixism
Proposed by Georges Cuvier, fixism posited that all species are independent and have remained unchanged since their creation.
Evolutionism
Evolutionism states that the universe and all life forms are products of development.
Lamarckism
The first comprehensive theory of biological evolution, presented in *Philosophie Zoologique* by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, it is based on the following principles:
- There is a gradual progression from simpler organisms to more complex ones.
- Organisms change gradually due to environmental pressures and the need for adaptation.
- The use and disuse of certain organs lead to their development or atrophy.
Darwinism
Based on Darwin’s observations, this theory proposes a struggle for survival due to limited resources. This leads to natural selection, where the fittest individuals, possessing advantageous traits for their environment, survive. The less adapted individuals are less likely to survive and reproduce, while the adapted ones transmit their characteristics to their descendants.
Mutationism
This theory states that evolutionary progress depends on mutations. Hugo de Vries distinguished two types of variations:
- Changes caused by environmental factors, which are not inherited.
- Mutations, which are alterations in the genes of living organisms that are transmitted through inheritance.
Synthetic Theory or Neodarwinism
The debate between proponents of natural selection and mutationism led to the synthetic theory of evolution. This theory, explained by Dobzhansky, states that mutations explain the variations in organisms that are inherited, and natural selection directs the course of evolution by eliminating less-equipped variations and perpetuating better-adapted individuals.
Human Evolution and Culture
Australopithecus
Lived in the jungle around 3 million years ago. They had a cranial capacity of about 500cm3 and were bipedal. They lived in open areas like grasslands and savannas, organized in family groups, built huts, and used tools.
Homo Sapiens
Initially nomadic, relying on hunting and gathering, Homo sapiens eventually began practicing agriculture and animal husbandry. They developed weapons and tools, such as stone axes and knives.
Free Will
Humans are unique in their capacity to resist instinctive urges, envision the future, and shape it through their actions and inactions. This capacity stems from:
- Imagination: The ability to create innovative projects.
- Reason: The ability to organize these projects and construct a fulfilling human life.
Culture
Culture is the most important distinguishing feature of human beings. It is a set of elements (language, laws, institutions, art, etc.) that humans have produced as a consequence of living in society. Culture serves to understand the world, to act effectively to survive, and to develop in a distinctly human way.