Metaphysics: Key Concepts and Historical Evolution
Metaphysics: A Historical Overview
Revisiting Greek Authors:
Engaging with the Greeks is considered essential and definitive. Infinity, deemed incomprehensible, is viewed as impossible and indefinable. While existence is undeniable, the core metaphysical questions arise: What exists? What is the nature of these existing things? (Who is there? What is there?).
The Introduction of God
God’s Role in Medioplatonism and Christianity: God is introduced as the infinite Being, the source of life. Essences are perceived as exemplary ideas within the divine mind. The world, seen as contingent and finite, necessitates explanation. Consider Thomas Aquinas, a prominent figure of the Middle Ages, as an example of this philosophy:
Thomas Aquinas and Existence
Thomas Aquinas questioned the very existence of everything. Why does anything exist? He viewed the world as contingent, not necessary, distinguishing between essence and existence as fundamental attributes of all finite beings. Only the necessary being possesses the same essence as existence. All other beings do not inherently necessitate existence. The question then becomes: Why is there something rather than nothing? The answer lies in viewing the world as a creation, with God as the self-subsistent Being, capable of bestowing existence upon other beings, allowing them to participate in the Self as their essence.
The Modern Age and the Suspicion of Knowledge
Modern Age: Accessing knowledge becomes challenging. Philosophy grows skeptical about the possibility of truly knowing reality, seeking to build knowledge safely and logically. With Descartes and rationalism, an idealistic approach emerges: the self-thinking is the primary and best-known entity. Descartes posits that the thinking self exists as a subject of thoughts, which is the most direct and best-known entity. However, one cannot immediately judge whether these thoughts represent something beyond themselves. Descartes seeks evidence in intellectual intuition, a direct and clear perception with the intellect. From the idea of self, one arrives at the idea of God and then to the world. Thus, Descartes addresses the metaphysical question: Who is there?
Empiricism and the Importance of Experience
Empiricism: Empiricists prioritize experience as the foundation of firm knowledge. They reject the concept of substance, lacking direct sensory impression. The causal relationship is also questioned, as there is no direct impression of a necessary connection between events. Knowledge beyond empirical evidence is considered unfounded. Empiricist metaphysics, and with it philosophy itself, is called into question.
Materialistic and Mechanistic Positions
Materialistic and Mechanistic Positions: Only the material exists, either directly experienced or linked to experience. This perspective aligns with the positivism of Auguste Comte.
Berkeley’s Idealism
Berkeley’s Position: Esse est percipi (to be is to be perceived). This spiritualism takes the principles of empiricism to an extreme, making Berkeley a unique figure among empiricists and a precursor to later thinkers.
Idealist Philosophy
Idealist Position: All that is rational is real. Reality is viewed as Spirit becoming World.
Rethinking Metaphysics in the Modern Age
Rethinking Metaphysics by different currents in the Modern Age: Thinkers like Ortega y Gasset advocate for a metaphysical study of reality, focusing on life as the fundamental reality encompassing all others.