Metaphysics and Materialism: Key Concepts
ITEM 5: Reality
1. The Origin of the Term ‘Metaphysics’
The term ‘metaphysics’ first appears in writing in Andronicus of Rhodes’ edition of Aristotle’s works in Rome, at the end of the ancient era. The word titles a piece placed after the works discussing physis (nature), meaning “what comes after physics.” Some interpreters, like Aubenque, argue that this term was already used in the Lyceum, Aristotle’s school, to name these writings.
2. Understanding Metaphysics
- Traditionally, metaphysics addresses not only the question of being but also concepts like essence, substance, res (thing), cause, and being itself. It deals with the most abstract concepts used by human reason.
- Another interpretation of metaphysics is the study of “what is beyond physis (nature)” – entities not subject to the laws of our world, though they may influence it. This includes entities like God, angels, souls, and Platonic Ideas.
3. The Term ‘Ontology’
Ontology encompasses the part of the old metaphysics that focused solely on the concept of being and related concepts, excluding the study of God and souls, which were reserved for other areas of metaphysics.
4. The Notion of Matter
What gives unity to the world’s content is matter, and only matter is materialistic.
The notion of matter is complex and distinct from some common, vulgar meanings. Matter is not the same as the body, although there have always been corporeal materialists. Matter is not energy; their significance is complementary. Matter and energy are interchangeable, representing two forms of the same reality (Einstein).
We cannot assign a specific form of presentation to matter, but we are talking about a monism.
5. The Materialism of Heraclitus of Ephesus
Heraclitus formulated a radical materialism, without concessions to any metaphysical figure, as evidenced by these texts:
- Fragment 30: “This world, which is the same for all, no god nor man has made, but it is eternal fire, kindling in measures and going out in measures.”
- Fragment 53: “War is the father and king of all things. Some it has made gods, others men; some it has made slaves, others free.”
6. The Atomism of Democritus
Democritus developed a theory of physis that can be considered materialistic atomism. He posited that matter is composed of solid, eternal, immutable, tiny particles, differing in shape, which give rise to and cause the death of natural things through their combination and separation. These particles are called atoms, meaning “indivisibles.” The movement of atoms is random, so the order of nature originates from chance and could be entirely different. One of his phrases corroborating this theory was: “Because, fundamentally, everything is made of the same atoms.”
7. The Philosophical Materialism of Gustavo Bueno
This doctrine on the structure of reality opposes both materialistic monism (Diamat) and monistic idealism or theological spiritualism. Philosophical materialism is a form of rationalistic pluralism, positing the uniqueness of the world while developing a general ontological matter that is not limited to the empirical world. It denies continuity (against monism) and, in accordance with the doctrine of symploké, that “everything influences everything.” It also denies, against pluralistic atomism, “that nothing influences anything.”
8. Three Kinds of Materiality in Philosophical Materialism
The material world is stratified into three genera (not three worlds):
- Primogenérica matter: Solid corporeal entities or incorporeal entities like electromagnetic waves.
- Segundogenérica matter: Operations of individuals, projects, social or political plans, memories, desires, or wills.
- Terciogenérica matter: Relationships expressed in geometric theorems, such as Pythagoras’ theorem.
The material world is arranged in characteristic morphologies, which is the main objective of analysis in particular ontology.