Medieval Spain: From Pre-Roman Peoples to the Crown of Aragon
1. Pre-Roman and Roman Spain
1.1 The Process of Humanization
Lower Paleolithic: Hominization began in Africa. Homo habilis was the first human species. The first human remains have been found in the Sierra de Atapuerca.
Middle Paleolithic: Homo neanderthalensis used small tools such as scrapers. Deposits are found in Granada and Gibraltar.
Upper Paleolithic: Homo sapiens used harpoons, arrowheads, and bones as tools. The first manifestations of rock art appeared. The most important deposits are in Cantabria.
1.2 Pre-Roman Peoples
- Tartessians: Settled in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, engaged in mining and ranching.
- Iberians: Situated on the Mediterranean coast and Andalusia, their economy was based on agriculture, livestock, and textiles. They used currency. One of their manifestations was the Lady of Elche.
- Celtiberians: Located inland, they had contact with the Mediterranean. Metals and agriculture were the basis of their economy.
- Celts: Located on the Cantabrian coast, they lived on livestock, fisheries, and agriculture.
1.3 Historical Settlements
Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians reached the Mediterranean coast for metals and other products.
- Phoenicians: Founded Gadir (Cadiz) and traded metals with luxury goods and salted products.
- Greeks: From Marseilles, founded colonies such as Ampurias and Roses.
- Carthaginians: From Carthage, established colonies such as Ibiza. Conquered peoples south of the Ebro River, except Sagunto.
1.4 Steps of the Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by Rome
Rome and Carthage faced off in the Second Punic War (218-202 BC). Rome dominated most of the Iberian Peninsula. Hannibal’s conquest of Rome. The occupation of the plateau was complicated by Celtiberian opposition. The Cantabrian Wars ended in 19 BC. The Iberian Peninsula was controlled by Augustus.
1.5 The Process of Romanization: The Cultural Legacy
The peoples of the Iberian Peninsula had diverse cultural traditions. Elements of Romanization include: Latin as the official language, Seneca’s contributions to literature and law, and the integration of gods from Greek and pre-Roman mythology.
1.6 The Process of Romanization: Public Works
New cities were built according to Roman models, and roads were created. Important roads included the Via Augusta and the Via de la Plata. Roman bridges and aqueducts (Segovia), theaters, and amphitheaters (Merida) were also constructed.
1.7 The Visigoth Monarchy
The Visigoths settled in Toledo until the Muslim invasion and carried out three unification processes: legal, religious, and territorial. Leovigildo expelled the Suebi, Alans, and Vandals and established a monarchy. Recaredo’s conversion to Christianity brought religious unity. Legal unity came with the publication of the Visigothic Code. The most important political institution was the Assembly of Freemen, which held the power of the kingdom. However, the monarchy was unstable, leading to the Muslim invasion. The king had significant powers and collaborated with royal councils in Toledo on legislative and other matters.
2. Al-Andalus and the Reconquista
2.1 The Iberian Peninsula: Middle Ages
Muslim Arabs crossed the Strait of Gibraltar in 711. Tariq defeated King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Musa took Seville and Merida. Muslims conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula. Clashes between Arabs and Berbers occurred. Muslims were defeated by the Asturians at Covadonga and near Poitiers, marking the end of Arab expansion.
2.2 The Emirate and Caliphate of Cordoba
The Iberian Peninsula became a province of the Islamic Caliphate in Damascus. In 756, Al-Andalus became an emirate dependent on Baghdad. Abd-al-Rahman I became Emir and resolved internal conflicts, improved borders, and strengthened the military. In 929, he proclaimed the Caliphate of Cordoba. Abd-al-Rahman III was the first caliph. Al-Mansur organized campaigns against the Christians. He died in 1002, and the Caliphate ended in 1031.
2.3 The Crisis in the Twelfth Century: The Taifa Kingdoms
In 1031, the Caliphate disintegrated into 27 Taifa kingdoms due to disputes over Al-Mansur’s heritage. Important Taifas included Valencia, Toledo, and Badajoz. They were grouped into three types: Andalusian, Berber, and Slavic. The Taifas had weak armies and paid Christians for peace.
2.4 The Crisis in the Twelfth Century: The North African Empires
Almoravids: Located in North Africa, they defeated Alfonso VI of Castile at Sagrajas and again at Uclés. Their religious radicalism lasted until 1144. The Taifas reemerged. Almohads: Occupied the Iberian Peninsula and defeated the Castilians at Alarcos. The united Christian kingdoms of Castile, Aragon, and Navarre defeated the Almohads at Las Navas de Tolosa.
2.5 Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization
Economy: Agriculture focused on citrus crops and rice, but the main products were vines, olives, and cereals. Sheep breeding and mining (lead, copper, gold) were important. Textile production, ceramics, and leatherwork thrived. Domestic trade occurred in souks, and foreign trade involved exporting oil and sugar and importing fabrics, leather, metals, and luxury goods from the Middle East.
Society: Consisted of three groups: Arabs (aristocracy), Berbers (military power), and Muladi (lower rung). Women held a lower status than men.
2.6 Thought and Letters
Two schools of thought emerged in Al-Andalus: the Malekite school (religious intolerance and scientific focus) and the Masarrite school (tolerant, philosophical, and scientific). Culture flourished during the Caliphate. Greek and Roman texts were prominent in philosophy. New forms of literature emerged in poetry. Mathematics saw advancements in trigonometry and algebra. Chronicles focused on history, biography, and religious history. Prominent figures included Averroes (philosophy) and Maimonides (medicine).
2.7 Muslim Architecture: Palaces and Mosques
- Caliphate Stage (10th century): Mosque of Cordoba and Medina Azahara, featuring horseshoe arches, domes, and capitals.
- Taifa Stage (11th century): Ornate decoration but with poorer materials (e.g., Aljafería Palace).
- Almoravid Stage (12th century): Giralda of Seville, with pillars and pointed horseshoe arches.
- Nasrid Stage (14th-15th centuries): Alhambra in Granada, with stellate and octagonal shapes and plaster moldings.
3. Christian Kingdoms and Culture
3.1 The First Centers of Christian Resistance
After the Muslim conquest, pockets of resistance organized. Pelayo defeated a Muslim army at Covadonga in 722. The kingdom expanded under Alfonso I and Alfonso II, establishing the capital in Oviedo. Alfonso III reached the Duero River, and after his death, the capital moved to León. Navarre, located between France and Al-Andalus, became independent under Iñigo Arista. Sancho III expanded Navarrese power to Aragon and Castile, later dividing the kingdom into Castile, Navarre, and Aragon.
3.2 Main Stages of the Reconquista
- Stage 1 (starting in 722): Christian centers in the north moved south, reaching the Duero River.
- Stage 2 (11th-mid 12th centuries): Castile and León occupied land up to the Tagus River, reconquering Toledo.
- Stage 3 (late 12th-early 13th centuries): Christians advanced to the Sierra Morena, culminating in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa.
- Stage 4 (13th century): Ferdinand III occupied the Guadalquivir Valley. James I conquered Valencia and the Balearic Islands.
3.4 A Diverse Culture: Muslims, Christians, and Jews
In the 13th century, the Muslim cultural area was superior to the rest of Europe. The Reconquista opened borders, bringing new texts, ideas, and people. The pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela became a cultural diffusion route. Universities developed in Christian areas. The Toledo School of Translators facilitated collaboration between cultures, translating texts from ancient cultures. Jewish culture contributed to medicine and mathematics.
3.5 Artistic Manifestations: Romanesque
Architecture: Santiago de Compostela Cathedral and monasteries like Santo Domingo de Silos. Key elements: walls, columns, arches, and barrel vaults.
Sculpture: Decorative role in temples, covering capitals. Ivory and wood carvings. Santiago’s sculpture.
Painting: Linear strokes, unnatural, without perspective (e.g., Church of Sant Climent de Taüll).
3.6 Artistic Manifestations: Gothic
Late 14th-15th centuries: Flourished in cities. Humanistic art expressing feelings.
Architecture: Height and light, achieved through Gothic arches and flying buttresses (e.g., Cathedrals of León, Burgos, Toledo).
Sculpture and Painting: Transcended Romanesque anti-naturalism. Sketchy style, 3D perspective, and conventions. Sculpture in tombs (e.g., Virgin of the Lance).
4. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon
4.1 Constitutions in the Crown of Castile
The Kingdom of Castile included Galicia, Vizcaya, Alava, and Guipuzcoa. Court positions included steward, chancellor, and constable. State administration was handled by the Royal Council and court hearings. Local government involved councils with lawyers. A royal army and a bureaucracy of lawyers were key to royal power. The Trastámara dynasty emerged after the war between Peter I and Henry II.
4.2 Institutions of the Crown of Aragon
The Crown of Aragon was a confederation of kingdoms: Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, and the Principality of Catalonia. The king had to agree with privileged classes and respect each kingdom’s laws. Institutions included the Royal Council, the Audience, and the Courts (13th century) in Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia. The Courts created the Catalan and Valencian Generalitat, and Aragon established Councils of the Kingdom.
4.3 Crisis: Demographic, Economic, and Political (Late Middle Ages)
In the 14th and 15th centuries, Castile, Aragon, and Catalonia experienced a crisis. Bad harvests, lack of technological advancements in agriculture, epidemics (Black Death), and declining incomes contributed. Castile’s main economic activity was sheep farming, exporting wool, while Catalonia exported textiles. Dominant social classes exploited peasants, leading to uprisings in Galicia and Catalonia. Urban social conflicts arose between classes and the gentry.
4.4 Aragonese Expansion in the Mediterranean
Peter III conquered Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. These territories were also desired by France and the Pope. James II oversaw the Almogavars’ adventures in the eastern Mediterranean. They fought the Turks in Byzantium and later served the Duke of Athens, capturing Athens with the cry “Aragon, Aragon!” Alfonso V annexed Naples and established his court there. The Consulate of the Sea played a role in Mediterranean politics.