Medieval Europe: Trade, Urban Growth, and Societal Changes
1. When Did Agricultural Production Start to Increase?
Agricultural production began to increase in the 12th century. New land was created by cutting down forests and draining marshes. In some areas, the three-year system of crop rotation was established, leaving one-third of the land fallow each year. The moldboard plow tilled the soil more efficiently. In Mediterranean areas, irrigation became more widespread, and new crops were introduced. There was also greater use of wind and water mills, which could do the work of forty people.
2. How Were Products Transported?
Products were transported by land, river, and sea. There were two very important routes: the Atlantic and the Mediterranean.
3. How Many Routes Were There?
There were two main routes:
- Mediterranean: It linked Spanish and Italian cities with Muslim ports and the Byzantine Empire. Europeans imported luxury items, clothes, and weapons.
- Atlantic: It was dominated by a merchant association, the Hanseatic League, linking ports of Portugal with Flemish, German, and Russian cities. Members of the league exchanged Spanish and English wool, French wines, English tin, and products of the Baltic, such as amber, furs, wood, and wheat.
4. Where Did Merchants Meet?
Merchants met at trade fairs. The biggest fairs were held in Champagne, a region of France.
5. Where Were the Biggest Fairs Held?
The biggest fairs were held in Champagne, a region of France.
6. Which Financial Methods Were Developed?
As a result of the increase in trade, banking techniques changed, and new financial methods were developed. Payment by credit was introduced. Bills of exchange made it unnecessary to carry large sums of money.
7. Medieval Cities
Cities began to grow again in the 12th century. Some old cities were revived. New cities appeared, often near a castle or monastery, at a crossroads, or on a trade route. Medieval cities were small. The biggest cities had 50,000 inhabitants. The largest were Paris and cities in the Low Countries like Bruges or Ghent, and in Northern Italy like Genoa, Florence, and Venice.
8. What Were the Causes of Urban Growth?
New farming techniques resulted in less work for people. Many peasants had to migrate to cities to find work. There was a revival in trade. Many merchants went to live in the cities where the markets were. Peasants went to cities to buy and sell. Cities offered peasants a better life. They were not controlled by feudal lords. All the inhabitants were free. Each city had its own government, the city council, which was directed by a mayor.
9. What Were Inhabitants of Cities Like?
In cities, there were rich and poor merchants. The rich governed the city; the poor had to beg or commit crimes in order to survive. There were craftsmen, merchants, shopkeepers, and even people who worked in domestic service. Most of them were Christians, but there were also groups of Jews and, on the Iberian Peninsula, Muslims.
10. What Was the Role of Craftsmen?
Craftsmen made their products by hand. They worked in small workshops, which were located in the owner’s house. The products were sold there too. Craftsmen of the same profession lived on the same street. These streets were named after trades, as in Baker Street or Tannery Row.
11. What Were Guilds?
From the 12th century, all artisans in the same profession joined a guild. Each guild had its own statute, which established members’ rights and obligations. Guilds controlled production and distributed raw materials. Guilds also looked after their members and their families. Sometimes, guilds built hospitals. Nobody could work in a trade if they did not join a guild.
12. How Many Categories of Craftsmen Were There?
There were three categories of craftsmen:
- Master craftsmen: Owned the workshops, tools, and raw materials. Workshops were usually handed down from father to son.
- Journeymen: Skilled workers who worked for a master craftsman.
- Apprentices: Young people who were learning the trade. They lived in the master’s house and did not receive a salary.
The masters ran and controlled the guilds.
13. How Did Royal Authority Grow?
In the 12th century, medieval economies improved, and the kings collected more taxes. They created their own armies and forced many feudal lords to obey them. In cities, the kings began to take power from the nobles. They gave charters of liberties to the cities, which became free of feudal dependence. In exchange, the citizens supported the king against the feudal lords, and they began to have political power.
14. What Were Parliaments Like?
The king began to create parliaments. They were very different from the parliaments of today. Parliaments only met when the king called a meeting. Their main function was to establish new taxes and approve special budgets for wars. Parliaments had different degrees of power.
15. Why Were Many Conflicts Caused?
Many conflicts were caused by disputes over succession.
16. When Did These Conflicts Occur?
These conflicts occurred when a monarch died without leaving a suitable successor.