Medieval England: Monasteries, Language, and Monarchs
Medieval Monasteries and Their Roles
The abbot held overall control of the Abbey. The prior, junior to the abbot, organized the day-to-day operations. Larger abbeys might have a sub-prior to assist. Other roles included chantor, sacristan, hospitaller, infirmarer, and almoner. By the mid-11th century, British monasteries were declining. Following the Norman Conquest, William granted land to the Church and brought Normans to rebuild and repopulate the monasteries. New churches were built on older foundations, and Norman Benedictine Abbots took over.
Language Changes After the Conquest
The introduction of Anglo-Norman, a northern dialect of Old French, significantly impacted England. It became the language of the ruling class, displacing Old English. French words entered the English language, and French names replaced English ones. Latin also gained importance, evidenced by the Domesday Book. A well-educated Englishman was trilingual, speaking English, Latin, and French, the latter being the language of law, estate management, song, and verse.
Timeline of English Monarchy in the Early Middle Ages
William II (1087-1100) / Henry I (1100-1135) / Stephen (1135-1154) / Henry II (1154-1189) / Richard I (1189-1199) / John (1199-1216) / Henry III (1216-1272) / Edward I (1272-1307)
William II (1087-1100)
William II, also known as William Rufus, was the third son of William I and Matilda of Flanders. Born between 1056 and 1060, he ruled England from 1087 to 1100. He had influence in Normandy and Scotland but was less successful in Wales. Despite being an effective soldier, he was a ruthless ruler, disliked by many. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle even described him as hateful to God, likely due to his conflicts with the Church. Upon William I’s death, Normandy was given to Robert, and England to William. Nobles with lands in both regions feared losing territory, leading to the Rebellion of 1088. William won support by promising better governance. In 1091, he invaded Normandy, forcing Robert to cede land. They later reconciled, with William agreeing to help Robert recover lands lost to France. After the death of Archbishop Lanfranc, William delayed appointing a new archbishop, appropriating ecclesiastical revenues. In 1093, he named Anselm of Canterbury, who became a strong supporter of Gregorian reforms, leading to conflict with William. Anselm went into exile in 1097, and William claimed the archbishop’s revenues until his death.
William inherited the Anglo-Norman settlement detailed in the Domesday Book. In 1095, Robert de Mowbray, Earl of Northumbria, was dispossessed and imprisoned for refusing to attend the Curia Regis. In 1091, William repulsed an invasion by Malcolm III of Scotland, forcing him to pay homage. Malcolm and his son were killed in an ambush in 1093. In 1096, Robert joined the First Crusade, pledging Normandy to William for 10,000 marks. William ruled Normandy as regent. He died in 1100 in the New Forest while hunting, with unclear circumstances surrounding his death. He did not marry or have children, so his younger brother, Henry I, succeeded him.
Henry I (1100-1135)
After William II’s death in 1100, Henry I was crowned at Westminster Abbey on August 5, 1100. He inherited 5,000 silver coins from his father and was known as Henry Beauclerc due to his education. He promised to abandon William Rufus’s policies towards the Church, prevent royal abuses of barons’ property rights, and return to the customs of Edward the Confessor.
On November 11, 1100, he married Edith of Scotland, with whom he had three children: Eufemia, Matilda, and William “Atheling”. In 1101, many Anglo-Norman elites supported Robert, who wanted to be crowned. However, Robert desisted due to lack of support. Flamard, the Bishop of Durham, escaped from the Tower of London and mobilized an invasion force for Robert. The brothers met at Alton, where they agreed to the Treaty of Alton. Robert recognized Henry as king, and Henry renounced claims on western Normandy, paying Robert 2,000 pounds a year. However, Robert broke the treaty, and Henry invaded Normandy. After the Battle of Tinchebray in 1106, Robert was taken prisoner, and Normandy was united with England. Henry’s succession plans were disrupted by the sinking of the White Ship in 1120, where his son died.
With no legitimate sons, Henry married Adeliza of Louvain, but they had no children. He made his knights swear to recognize his daughter Matilda as queen. Matilda married Geoffrey of Anjou. When Henry died, Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou, and Henry’s nephew, Stephen, claimed the throne. The crowds in London proclaimed Stephen as the new monarch. A civil war ensued, and Stephen recognized Henry as his heir. At Stephen’s death, Henry II succeeded to the throne.
Henry II (1154-1189)
Henry II, born on March 5, 1133, was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda. He was Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Duke of Normandy, Duke of Aquitaine, Count of Nantes, Lord of Ireland, and King of England. Known as Henry Plantagenet, he was the first king of the Plantagenet dynasty. He was educated at the best schools in Europe and returned to England in 1147.
By the 1140s, the civil war was ending. In November 1153, Henry and Stephen ratified the Treaty of Winchester, with Stephen recognizing Henry as his successor. Stephen died, and Henry inherited the throne. On May 18, 1152, Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine, bringing more land into his domain. When crowned in 1154, Henry had power over England, Normandy, Angevin, and Poitevin. He had to develop a universal legal system due to the different laws and feudal systems in his territories.
Eleanor of Aquitaine was a significant figure, inheriting Aquitaine. She married King Louis VII but the marriage was annulled. She then married Henry Plantagenet. Henry had to fix the problem of barons being more powerful than himself. He imposed the exchequer system and increased royal power through his coronation charter. He took back castles, towns, and lands given away by Stephen. Henry restored the royal position, overpowering the barons. He tried to expand his power, clashing with the Church. He wanted to switch the power of sentencing criminals from the Church to the royal courts. Archbishop Thomas Becket refused, leading to his execution. Henry and Eleanor were the parents of Richard the “Lionheart” and John. Richard I revolted against his father, supported by Eleanor, who was imprisoned until Henry’s death in 1189.
Richard I (1189-1199)
Richard I, known as Richard the Lionheart, was King of England from July 6, 1189, until his death. He was also count and duke of other places. He was known for his military leadership and warrior skills. By sixteen, he commanded his own army. He was a central Christian commander during the Third Crusade. He spent little time in England, living in France. He is remembered by his epithet rather than his regnal number.
After the Third Crusade, he was captured and released in 1194 after paying a ransom. He returned to England and submitted to his brother John Lackland. He fought against the French monarch in 1194. He was a poet and a hero of many legendary tales. He died in 1199 during the siege of the castle of Chalus.
John (1199-1216)
John, also known as John Lackland, was King of England from April 6, 1199, until his death. During his reign, England lost Normandy, contributing to the growth of the Capetian dynasty. The baronial revolt led to the sealing of the Magna Carta, a document limiting royal rights. Although John and the barons agreed to the Magna Carta, neither side complied, leading to civil war. John died of dysentery in 1216. His son, Henry III, achieved victory over Louis and the rebel barons.
It was the first time that limitations to royal rights were established in written law. England lost many possessions in France to King Philip II of France.
Henry III (1216-1272)
Henry III, son of John, reigned for 56 years from 1216 until his death. Known as Henry of Winchester, he was the first child king in England since Æthelred the Unready. He was crowned at nine years old. England prospered during his reign. He assumed the crown under the regency of William Marshal. He spent much of his reign fighting the barons over Magna Carta and royal rights.
EDWARD I
After the Second Barons’ War, through the Treaty of Montgomery in 1267, the lands conquered in Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwladd were given and was officially recognized as Prince of Wales. Throughout Edward’s reign, there were constant financial difficulties due to military campaigns. The Jewish people were a major source of revenue for the king. In 1290, Edward ordered the expulsion of the Jews from England, seizing their properties to finance the war. Henry II used a systematic strategy to expand his territories inside of Great Britain which resulted successful, while Edward I took a different strategy attempting to invade Wales and Scotland, with whom he had not a good relationship until 1603. In 1282, the last battle was fought, ending all Welsh princes’ sovereignty. With Llywelyn’s death, the remaining Welsh lords offered their land to the Englishmen.
To consolidate his conquests, Edward constructed a series of castles. Its construction caused a dispute with Llywelyn and the English crown, one of the reasons for the end of the independence of Wales.