Medieval Christianity: Iconoclasm, Schisms, Crusades, and Art
The Iconoclastic Struggle
The women’s struggle was iconoclastic. Important icons and images were elements of worship. Leo III, emperor of Byzantium, prohibited the use of images in 730 and led the fight against iconoclasm. In 843, Theodora decreed the restoration of icons in worship, favored by those who opposed the misuse of images, Muslims, Jews, and the influence of Rome.
Rise of Papal States
The Papal States, centered in Rome, were built upon areas of land, establishing themselves in 756. The Pope’s influence expanded across many issues. The Papal territories lasted until 1870 with the unification of Italy.
Expansion of the Church in Catalonia
- Importance of parish evangelization
- Christian baptism of new members
Monasteries and Cultural Diffusion
Monasteries, beyond their religious dimension, were sources of cultural diffusion: St. Michael’s, Sant Cugat, Sant Joan de Ripoll, and the Abbess founded by Wilfred the Hairy.
Catalan Church in the Year 1000
Abbot Oliva renovated the Basilica of Ripoll and built the new church of Vic. He also established the monastery of Santa Maria de Montserrat. In 970, Count Borrell II, Ato, and Gerbert were in Rome, securing from Pope John XIII the dignity of Archbishop of Tarragona, independent from Narbonne, France.
Medieval Christendom
Medieval Christendom was a period of theocentrism, with God as the focus and reason for everything. Europe was divided between emperors, kings, and the church hierarchy, leading to the neglect of spiritual and pastoral service.
Monastic Renewal
Monasticism was a key renewal movement. New monastic orders enriched the Church’s societal contribution:
- Cluny: Led the Benedictine Order reform in the 11th century, founded by William the Pious in 910 in Burgundy (France).
- Cistercian: Founded in 1098 in Cîteaux (France) by St. Robert, Abbot of Molesmes, and over 20 monks.
- Carthusian: Founded in 1084 by St. Bruno in Grenoble, emphasizing radical evangelical poverty.
The Eastern Schism (1054)
The division of the Roman Empire created tension between the Eastern and Western churches. In 1054, Pope Leo IX sent Cardinal Humbert to Constantinople to achieve unity, but it resulted in definitive division and mutual excommunication. Consequences included:
- Use of Latin in the West and Greek in the East.
- Different liturgical celebrations.
- Papal authority in the West versus the Eastern Orthodox Church.
- Mandatory celibacy for priests and bishops in the West, but not in the East.
- The Investiture Controversy (11th-12th centuries).
Investiture Controversy
Investiture involved the church’s appointment of clerics, abbots, and bishops, leading to power struggles. Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Emperor Henry IV for exercising investiture rights. In 1122, the Concordat of Worms, signed by Pope Calixtus II and Emperor Henry V, stipulated that bishops and abbots should be chosen by religious authority.
The Western Schism (1378-1417)
Clement V was elected pope and chose Avignon as his residence (1309-1377). Upon Gregory XI’s return to Rome and the election of Urban VI, French cardinals elected Clement VII, who returned to Avignon. Between 1378 and 1417, the Church had two popes. The Council of Pisa (1409) elected Alexander V to resolve the issue, resulting in three popes:
- Roman Popes: Supported by Italy, England, Poland, Hungary, Flanders, and Germany.
- Avignon Popes: Supported by France, Naples, Portugal, Navarre, Aragon, Castile, and Scotland.
- Alexander V: Minor support in Italy.
The Council of Constance (1414-1418) resolved the schism by deposing the three popes and electing Martin V.
Defense of Holy Places: The Crusades
A desire to know the land of Jesus led to Church-promoted pilgrimages to the Holy Land (mid-11th century), which was occupied by Muslims. To defend the faith, military campaigns (Crusades) were organized to liberate the Holy Land, along with military orders to protect pilgrims (Hospitallers, Templars, Maltese, Teutonic, etc.).
Heresies and the Inquisition
Doctrinal interpretation excesses or deficiencies led to heresies, combated through dialogue and the Inquisition. The Cathar or Albigensian heresy, emphasizing dualism, was prominent in southern France (11th-15th centuries).
Pilgrimages
Pilgrimage, a rite found in many religions, grew significantly from the fourth century, with crowds visiting Christian martyr shrines. Sources emphasized the need to seek the roots of faith, follow Jesus, and convert negative values into values of love.
Gothic Art
Gothic art, originating in France in the 12th century, developed in various fields:
- Architecture: Cathedrals emphasizing height, light, and pointed arches.
- Stained Glass: Colored glass windows.
- Sculpture: Carved stone or wood.
- Decorative Arts: Illustrated manuscripts and Bibles.
Education and Universities
In medieval times, there were monastic schools and professors. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, universities were established in Paris, Bologna, Oxford, and Salamanca, expanding studies to all fields. Prominent philosophers and theologians included Duns Scotus, St. Anselm, and St. Thomas Aquinas.
Peace and Truce of God (11th-15th centuries)
Abbot Oliva’s influence led to new public policies in Catalonia. Key institutions included the Peace of God, granting sanctuary to people and property within protected territories, and the Truce of God, suspending conflicts for predetermined periods.
Cistercian Contributions
The Cistercians founded the Monastery of Poblet (1150), specializing in ancient literature and manuscript transcription, and the female branch at Vallbona de les Monges (1160).
New Religious Orders in Catalonia
New religious orders in Catalonia included the Mercedarian, Franciscan, Dominican, and Carmelite orders.
The Onset of Decline
Political, economic, and social crises during the time of Peter III of Aragon, coupled with the Black Death, led to a decline in popular religiosity.