Media Research: History, Phases, and Impact on Attitudes
History of Media Research
Our attitudes are often influenced in two primary contexts: consumer behavior and political campaigns. Advertisers strive to capture our attention and direct it towards specific commercial goods. Research in this field is less concerned with our attitudes and more focused on our behavior.
The behavior underlying our consumer choices is whether we purchase a product or not. Advertisers are not interested in our opinions about a product; they are more concerned with our actions. Political campaigns operate similarly.
The central idea behind research on attitude change is that to alter behavior, one must first change attitudes. People modify their behaviors because their attitudes have shifted. At the heart of media effects research lies an interest in attitudes and the potential to influence them.
In the political realm, there are two behaviors to be influenced: voting behavior, which involves choosing between candidate A or candidate B, and voter turnout, where campaigns aim to convince people that their vote matters.
Strategies employed to induce attitude changes include: outlining a program that promises to address problems; building confidence in the candidate by demonstrating their ability to solve these issues; proving that the candidate’s party is superior to the rival party; portraying the opposing party’s actions as wrong; making the candidate appear likable; delivering a message that resonates with the public; and fostering a sense of unity by presenting the candidate as relatable.
The Social Psychology of Media Research
The four founding fathers of media research—Kurt Lewin, Harold Lasswell, Paul Lazarsfield, and Carl Hovland—developed various methods to persuade people during World War II. They established different research programs and formulated many fundamental theories in the field.
Before World War II, the prevailing theory was the Hypodermic Needle Theory. This theory posited that individuals passively receive and are influenced by media messages, leading to changes in behavior and attitude. The strength of the message was considered paramount; media could alter people’s views simply by delivering potent messages. People were seen as merely responsive to stimuli and easily swayed by reinforcement. However, after World War II, it became evident that media users are more complex. They are not just passive recipients of strong messages; they can also resist, argue, and question the information presented to them.
Five Phases of Media Research History
- Greco-Latin Tradition of Communication: This era focused on how messages should be crafted to persuade and be more effective. Rhetoric played a crucial role.
- Late 19th to Early 20th Century: Scholars pondered what held society together. Newspapers were the primary medium, seemingly capable of reflecting public opinion and informing people about others’ thoughts.
- During and After World War II: Propaganda research gained prominence, with a focus on influencing the attitudes of enemies. Researchers sought to understand what made certain messages so persuasive. Propaganda was not always presented as a direct message; it sometimes took the form of entertainment. The post-war period saw a public debate about the characteristics of a “good” versus a “bad” world.
- 1970s: New movements emerged, including feminist approaches, post-colonial studies, and Marxist theories. These movements challenged established procedures and highlighted previously overlooked aspects.
- Late Modernity: The last 35 years have been marked by the advent of the Internet and digitalization. These developments have prompted media effect scholars to reevaluate their theories and consider how they apply in the contemporary landscape.
Key Theories in Media Research
- Cultivation Research: This theory suggests that prolonged exposure to mainstream television can shape individuals’ opinions and beliefs.
- Agenda-Setting: Media has the power to place certain topics on the public’s mind and influence their personal agendas.
- Spiral of Silence Theory: This theory posits that individuals may not express their opinions if they perceive them to be in the minority, fearing criticism or social isolation.