Mastering Modal Verbs and Environmental Terminology
Essential English Vocabulary and Grammar Reference
Environmental and General Terminology
- TO DROWN: To die or be in danger of dying underwater due to lack of air.
- WASTE: Unwanted or used materials that are thrown away.
- DUMPED: Thrown away in large amounts, often in an uncontrolled way.
- WIDESPREAD: Happening in many places or affecting many people.
- TO JEOPARDIZE: To put something in danger or at risk on purpose.
- TAP: A device that controls the flow of water from a pipe (faucet).
- WATERFALLS: Natural places where water flows down from a high point.
- TO SEEP: To slowly move through small spaces, like water through soil.
- CREVICE: A small crack or narrow opening in a surface.
- GROUNDWATER: Water that is found under the ground in soil or rocks.
- OCEAN WATER: Saltwater found in seas and oceans.
- SURFACE WATER: Water that is found on the surface of the Earth, like lakes or rivers.
- POINT SOURCE POLLUTION: A specific and identifiable source of pollution, like a factory pipe.
- NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTION: A pollution source that is spread out and hard to identify, like runoff from farms.
- TO LEACH: To remove substances from something by water passing through it.
- SEWAGE: Wastewater from homes and buildings, including human waste, that is carried away through pipes.
- TRASH: Rubbish; things that people throw away.
- TO DUMP: To throw away a lot of waste in one place, often illegally.
- LARGELY: Mostly; to a great extent.
- SIP: A small amount of liquid that you drink slowly.
- COPPER: A reddish metal used in pipes and wires.
- TAP WATER: Water that comes from the faucet in a home or building.
- RENDER / TO RENDER: To cause something to be in a certain state or to make something become a certain way.
- RIDDING / TO RID: The process of removing something unwanted; to remove or eliminate something.
- TRANSBOUNDARY: Moving across borders or affecting more than one area or country.
- RUNOFF: Water that flows over the ground and carries substances with it.
- FAIR: Reasonable, just, or good for everyone involved.
- MARINE DEBRIS: Trash that is found in the ocean or other bodies of water.
- SOURCE: The origin or starting place of something.
- LEAKING / TO LEAK: Allowing liquid to escape through a hole or crack; to let liquid or gas escape from a container.
- BLOWN / TO BLOW: Moved by the wind or air; to be carried by the wind or to push air out.
- CULPRIT: The person or thing responsible for a problem or crime.
- SPILLING / TO SPILL: The act of liquid falling or flowing out of a container; to accidentally let liquid fall out of a container.
- CREEP: To move slowly and quietly, often unnoticed.
- EFFLUENT: Liquid waste or sewage that flows out from a factory or treatment plant.
- THRIFTSHOP: A store that sells second-hand goods, usually for charity. (Botiga de segona mà / Botiga de beneficència)
- IMPERILLING: Putting something or someone at risk or in danger. (Posant en perill / Amenaçant)
- PLIGHT: A difficult or unfortunate situation. (Situació difícil / Adversitat)
- STARK: Severe, harsh, or completely clear. (Dur / Cru / Clar i evident)
- TSK-TSK: A sound made to express disapproval. (Xiscle de desaprovació / Chascar la llengua per desaprovació)
- SCOPE: The extent or range of something. (Abast / Àmbit)
- BLUNTLY: In a direct, straightforward, and sometimes harsh way. (Franca i directament / Sense embuts)
Modal Verbs: Functions and Examples
Probability and Deduction
Modals used: might, may, can, can’t, could, “must”
- It’s snowing, so it must be very cold outside.
- I don’t know where John is. He could have missed the train.
- It might be a good idea to delay the meeting until tomorrow.
- This bill can’t be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!
Ability and Skill
Modals used: can, could
- She can speak six languages.
- My grandfather could play golf very well.
- I can’t drive.
Obligation and Advice
Modals used: must, have to, ought to, should
- Children must do their homework.
- We have to wear a uniform at work.
- You should stop smoking.
- You look really tired, you ought to go to bed now.
Prohibition
Modal used: mustn’t
- Children mustn’t do their homework.
Permission
Modals used: can, could, may
- Could I leave early today, please?
- You may not use the car tonight.
- Can we swim in the lake?
Requests and Offers
Modals used: may, could, would, shall
- May I ask a question?
- Could I have some water, please?
- Would you like a cup of coffee?
Short Questions and Answers
- Must we finish the report by tomorrow? → Yes, we must. / No, we mustn’t.
- Could she have forgotten her appointment? → Yes, she could have. / No, she couldn’t have.
- Would you help me carry these boxes? → Yes, I would. / No, I wouldn’t.
- Might they have seen the accident happen? → Yes, they might have. / No, they might not have.
- Should we have arrived earlier for the meeting? → Yes, we should have. / No, we shouldn’t have.
- Can he swim across the lake without stopping? → Yes, he can. / No, he can’t.
- Ought they to apologize for their mistake? → Yes, they ought to. / No, they ought not to.
- May I leave the classroom now? → Yes, you may. / No, you may not.
- Shall we invite them to the event? → Yes, we shall. / No, we shan’t.
- Mustn’t they wear protective gloves in the lab? → Yes, they must. / No, they mustn’t.
Modal Perfect Verbs: Structure and Function
Modal perfect verbs express probability or regret (something that could have been done or avoided in the past).
Structure of Modal Perfects
- Interrogative:
- MODAL + Subject + HAVE + Main Verb (Past Participle) + Object + ?
- Example: Could I have gone there?
- Negative:
- Subject + MODAL + N’T/NOT + HAVE + Main Verb (Past Participle) + Object.
- Example: I couldn’t have gone there.
- Affirmative:
- Subject + MODAL + HAVE + Main Verb (Past Participle) + Object.
- Example: I could have gone there.
Simple Modals and Semi-Modals
Simple Modals: must, should, ought to, can, could, may, might, shall, would (for Hypothesis), will (for The Future).
“Fake modals” (Semi-Modals): HAVE TO, BE ABLE TO.
Structure Example (Simple Modal): I can go there, I can’t go there, Can I go there?