Mastering English Grammar: Tenses, Speech, Clauses & More
Verb Tenses
- Present Perfect: I have given
- Present Perfect Continuous: I have been giving
- Future Simple: Will play
- Future Perfect: I will have played
Reported Speech
Present to Past. Present Perfect to Past Perfect. Present Continuous to Past Continuous. Present Perfect Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous. Past Perfect to Past Perfect. Past Perfect Continuous to Past Perfect Continuous. Future Simple to would + verb.
Modals
- Can – Could
- May – Might
- Must – Must have to – Had to
- Will – Would
- Would – Would
- Could – Could
- Should – Should
Expressions of Time
- Now – Then
- Today – That day
- Tonight – That night
- Yesterday – The previous day
- A month ago – The previous month
- Tomorrow – The following day
Reported Questions
(Time shift applies) The woman asked if/whether we had raised enough money. (where, who, how, when, whose…) Sam asked where the concert was.
Orders
To + verb: He ordered me not to follow…
Suggestions
(No change) Mary suggested that we hold a party to… Mary suggested organising a party.
More Verbs
- He agreed to do it.
- He offered to open.
- He promised to (I won’t do it).
- He refused to do it.
- (You should) He advised me to stop.
- He asked me to lend.
- He begged me to help.
- He invited me to come.
- He reminded me to send.
- He warned me not to touch.
- He admitted breaking.
- He denied breaking.
- (Must) He insisted on my staying.
- He accused me of stealing.
- He apologised for not telling.
- He congratulated me on passing.
- He explained that those verbs were…
Relative Clauses
WHO = WHOM (more respectful) WHICH WHOSE WHERE WHEN WHY HOW WHAT
Defining
(For which and who, ‘that’ can be used) The boy who/that lives next door is a tennis player. The book which/that you are reading is amazing.
Non-Defining
My boss, whose wife owns three restaurants, is a hard-working person. // Do you know anyone who has a van? // We showed him how we make… // She gave them what (the things) she had.
Passive Voice
Subject + to be (conjugated) + verb (past participle) + complement.
- I write a letter (A letter is written by me).
- I’m writing a letter (A letter is being written by me).
- I was writing a letter (A letter was being written by me).
- I will write a letter (A letter will be written by me).
- I have written a letter (A letter has been written by me).
Object Direct (OD)
A book will be bought to him by Sam.
Object Indirect (OI)
He will be bought a book by Sam.
Impersonal
- It’s thought that students don’t work enough.
- Students are thought not to work enough (Infinitive).
Causative
I have/get my hair done.
Conditionals
Type 0 (If + Present Simple / Present Simple)
Something real and very probable (If you heat ice, it melts).
Type 1 (If + Present Simple / Will (not) + Verb (infinitive))
If you don’t hurry, you will miss the train. Unless you hurry, you will miss the train. If it rains, you will get wet.
Type 2 (If + Past Simple / Would + Verb (infinitive))
If you went to bed earlier, you wouldn’t be so tired. If I spoke Spanish, I would be working in Spain. If I were you, I would talk with her.
Type 3 (If + Past Perfect / Would have + Participle)
Past situations: If it had rained, you would have gotten wet. If you had studied, you would have passed your exams.
Wish / If Only
- Future/Present: I wish I came.
- Past: I wish I had passed.
- Future: I wish you would stop talking.
Mixed Conditionals
- Change in the past would have a result in the present: If I had passed, I would go there.
- Change in the past would have changed the past: If I didn’t like pizza, I wouldn’t have gone.
Verb Structures
You would rather cook at home than eat out.
Followed by -ing
Anticipate, avoid, complete, delay, fancy, forgive, imagine, involve, report, understand, resist, mind, mention.
Followed by to + infinitive
Afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, choose, claim, decide, demand, deserve, expect, fail, get, hope, intend, learn, manage, offer, promise, threaten.
Vocabulary
- Make contact / get in touch
- Keep up to date
- Speak fluently
- Native speaker
- Mother language
False Friends
(Actual, sensitive)
Cognates
(Mature, difficult)
Expressions
- A rule of thumb (por norma general)
- Have all make up (tenelo todo amañado)
- The tip of the iceberg
- Don’t give these offers the time of day (no soportar algo)
- Put the foot on it
- Burn the candle at both ends
- By the skin of our teeth
Lifestyle
Active, sedentary, moderate physical activity, competitive, wellbeing, get in shape, be mindful, rest, positive focus.
Phrasal Verbs
Signed up to, take part in, drop out of, get through to (llegar a algo), cheer up, take care of, go ahead, end up, come up with, get on well (llevarse bn), take over from (tomar el control de algo), keep track of (mantenerse al día), work out, cut out, take up (empezar algo), set goals, gain perspective, deal with, run away, bring back, came across (cruzar).
Vocabulary (Shopping)
Browse, try out, charity shop, sweatshop, rip-off (estafar), misleading (engañosa), fall for a scam, brands, feedback, bargains.
Vocabulary (Waste)
Biodegradable, break down (descomponer), carbon footprint, clean up, compost, dump (arrojar), disposed of (deshecho), landfill sites (vertederos), sustainable, zero waste, environment.
Vocabulary (Society)
Employment, minority group, racial discrimination, citizens, wealth, welfare state, authorities.
Vocabulary (Careers)
Graduated from university, write a thesis, turn down a job, take a full-time job, supervising someone, apply for a place (solicitar), tutoring someone, volunteering, win a scholarship (ganar una beca).
Adjectives
Be confused by, dedicated to, become familiar with, pessimistic, carefree (despreocupado), sensible, cautious, reliable, cool-headed, critical, optimistic, focused, off-the-wall (fuera de lo común), brainy (cerebrito), rational, passionate about something.
Opinion Essay
(Defend my point of view) 1. Introduction + general opinion 2. Reason 3. Reason (first and foremost, for instance (de hecho), therefore (por ellos) in addition to this, as well as this (tambn) 4. Conclusion (consequently)
Formal Email
To whom it may concern (no lo conoces), Dear Sir/Madam. 1. I’m writing to complain about. I wish to express my dissatisfaction with. 2. Description of problems with details. 3. I would be grateful if you could… otherwise I would be obliged to take legal actions. 4. Yours faithfully (no lo conoces), Yours sincerely.
Argumentative/Discussion Essay
1. Intro 2. One opinion (on the one hand, what’s more, as a result, in addition, therefore (por lo tanto), for this reason) 3. Another opinion 4. Personal conclusion (te declinas por algo) on balance, I therefore believe that…
Covering Email
(Muchos adj) 1. I’m writing regarding the… I’m interested in applying for this position. 2. Describe what you do now, why you are interested. My aim is to work. At the present I’m studying for… 3. Describe your qualities and availability. 4. I would be delighted if you would consider me for your internship. I would be extremely grateful if you could inform me for any other opportunities…