Marx’s Theory of Historical Materialism
Historical materialism is the Marxist theory of world history that explains how history has unfolded through various modes of production. The means of production, along with the relations of production, determine the economic structure of society, which shapes the general course of history.
Marx’s analysis of society results in two fundamental layers: what he called the economic structure of society (the base) and the superstructure.
Base and Superstructure Explained
The Economic Structure (Base)
The economic structure of society is the system of production organization that fundamentally shapes every society throughout history. The economic structure is composed of: the productive forces (the means of production and labor power, represented by the working class or proletariat) and the social relations of production (the relationships people enter into as they produce, which arise from the productive forces).
The latter are determined by the level of economic activity and constitute a relatively static social element. Moreover, the dominant relations of production constitute the current form of civil society, aiming to preserve the rule of the exploiting class.
The Superstructure
The superstructure, meanwhile, consists of a network of social and ideological formations (such as law, politics, religion, philosophy, art) through which humans become aware of conflicts and which, apparently, resolve these conflicts at the ideological level. Its objective is to maintain the existing order.
The functions of the superstructure include the mystification of reality (the concealment of the true economic and social reality) and the interested justification of reality, where the dominant ideology at any given time aligns with the interests of the ruling class.
History, Modes of Production, and Class Struggle
The evolution of modes of production originates in the division of labor and the resulting private ownership of the means of production. From the moment there were owners of the sources of wealth, society became divided into classes: the exploiting class and the exploited class. This division and the subsequent struggle between classes is the driving force of history.
Thus, history progresses, according to Marx, through the succession of different organizational forms of economic activity, or modes of production. Marx identifies several historical modes of production:
- Asiatic: Characterized by state control and exploitation of communal labor.
- Ancient (Slave): Typical of Greece and Rome, where the oppressed class were slaves.
- Feudal: Characteristic of the Middle Ages, where feudal lords dominated the peasants.
- Capitalism: Where the rate of exploitation is maximized through wage labor.
Capitalism and Its Predicted Downfall
For Marx, the very logic of capitalist development produces the conditions for its eventual overthrow. Capitalism requires competition in the market. This necessitates increasing production speed, larger-scale production, and greater investment.
This development of production leads to the concentration of capital in fewer and fewer hands. Consequently, the petty bourgeoisie and small businesses, unable to compete, are ruined and swell the ranks of the proletariat, leading to a society increasingly centralized and organized.
Marx predicted a time when this concentrated capital could be dispossessed through a single revolution. This revolution would represent the final battle of the class struggle, resulting in the vast majority of the population (the proletariat) taking power.