Marxist Materialism: Class Struggle, Ideology, and Historical Evolution
Materialism
Materialist Doctrine
Materialism posits that all matter is the ultimate cause of reality. In historical materialism, according to Marx, man is not a passive object but an active protagonist of their life and history. History is determined by the economic relations of production, which are in turn determined by the means of production.
Production Relations and Class Struggle
Production relations are established between the owners of the means of production and the direct producers (workers or proletarians). History and evolution result from class struggle, leading to changing modes of production:
- Primitive Communism: Collective ownership of property.
- Slavery: Dominance and submission; the slave is the master’s instrument.
- Feudalism: The feudal lord owns the land; the serf works it.
- Capitalism: The capitalist owns the means of production and employs the worker’s labor force.
- Socialism: Collective ownership of the means of production.
Ideology and False Consciousness
Marxism argues that ideology is a set of ideas, a social product expressed in language, with a negative connotation: false consciousness. This means believing that human thoughts, ideas, and beliefs originate freely and autonomously in the mind. According to Marx, ideas and beliefs (ideology) result from the relations of production or the economy. Material reality determines thought, not the other way around. Ideology tends to distort reality, creating a false consciousness. Since ideology (superstructure) depends on the economy (infrastructure), those who control the economy also control ideology. In capitalist society, the bourgeoisie exercises economic and ideological control, manipulating and perpetuating the power of the ruling classes.
Infrastructure and Superstructure
Infrastructure comprises the essential material elements for a society’s operation and evolution—essentially, the economy. Superstructure encompasses social, political, religious, legal, and philosophical ideas and beliefs that organize human relations, defending the social order and economic system.
The economic structure is the foundation of social relations. It has two elements: productive forces and relations of production. Productive forces are the means, instruments, and human activity involved in production. Relations of production are the relationships between owners of the means of production and direct producers. These relations give rise to different modes of production: primitive, slave, feudal, capitalist, etc. In capitalism, the capitalist owns the productive forces (facilities, machinery), while also controlling the worker’s labor force through wages. Marx distinguished between use value and exchange value.
- Use value is the worth of a thing in itself or in satisfying a human need (e.g., water’s use value is quenching thirst or extinguishing fire).
- Exchange value, or commodity value, is determined by supply and demand, resulting in prices.
Historical Development and Class Conflict
Throughout history, use values have been nullified and replaced by exchange values (objects, animals, humans, and their activities are valued based on their market price). The worker is considered a commodity. Capitalists obtain surplus labor, the profit derived from each worker’s labor after subtracting the cost (wages) from the value produced, which is always much higher than the wage. In other words, a worker produces more than their salary costs, generating profit. Marx believed this situation was unjust. Only through revolutionary activity can bourgeois economics be replaced by a socialist economy, eventually leading to a communist economy. The driving force is class struggle. Ruling classes subject and exploit lower classes, who, upon becoming aware of their situation, organize and fight to overcome oppression. The transition between economic structures results from this struggle. With the triumph of liberal capitalism, the rivalry is between the capitalists (owners of the means of production) and the proletarians. However, capitalist economy, in its development, becomes a war of all against all. Workers have different interests from capitalists, and capitalists compete with each other. Similarly, proletarians compete due to labor shortages and an abundant workforce, which tends to lower wages. Moreover, a worker can be replaced at any time. This rivalry is inherent to the system: capitalists must exploit workers for cheaper goods to compete, potentially leading to insufficient surplus to maintain and expand their business, causing ruin and proletarianization. Thus, the number of proletarians grows, and wages fall. The means of production become concentrated in a few capitalists. Eventually, due to the abundance of workers and labor shortages, wages may not even cover the minimum food needs of proletarians. Marx believed that the proletariat would become aware of their situation and unite to end oppression, provoking a crisis in capitalism. The dispossessed would dispossess the owners, eradicating capitalism and replacing it with socialism, which abolishes private ownership of the means of production, transferring it to the workers. This worker control would be ensured by the dictatorship of the proletariat. After the revolution and the workers’ triumph, class divisions would disappear, creating an international fraternity and eliminating injustice. Socialist society is not the end point. It abolishes private ownership of the means of production, eliminating exploitation and replacing exchange value with use value. However, it is an interim step, preparing society for new values. The final stage is a communist society, where humans work freely, scarcity disappears, use value prevails, and the principle is: to each according to their needs, which can always be easily satisfied.