Major Historical Transformations: 1770s-1870s

Posted on Jun 14, 2025 in History

American Revolution & U.S. Constitution

Tensions Between Colonies and Britain

  • Economy
    • Raw materials to Britain
    • Colonies dependent on British goods
    • Enslaved Black labor on plantations
  • Trade Monopolies
    • Britain controlled trade
    • Colonies barred from direct international trade
  • Taxation Without Representation
    • No representation in Parliament
    • Key protests against taxes:
      • Stamp Act
      • Tea Act
  • Key Events
    • 1773: Boston Tea Party (protest against Tea Act)
    • 1774: Delegates met, grievances listed
    • 1776: Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson

American War of Independence (1775–1783)

  • Participants: Colonies + Allies (France, Spain) vs. Britain
  • Leadership: George Washington
  • Key Victories: Saratoga, Yorktown
  • Outcome:
    • 1783 Treaty of Paris: Britain recognized U.S. independence

U.S. Constitution (1787)

  • Purpose:
    • National sovereignty
    • Separation of powers
  • Powers:
    • Legislative: Congress (House + Senate)
    • Executive: President (George Washington, 1789)
    • Judicial: Independent judiciary

The French Revolution

Causes of the French Revolution

  • Social Unrest
    • Wealthy groups: Refused reforms, wanted to keep privileges.
    • Peasants: Overburdened by taxes, no political power.
  • Economic Crisis
    • Financial debt from wars and poor harvests.
    • Bread prices increased, leading to hunger and unrest.
  • The Enlightenment
    • Questioned monarchy and privilege.
    • Promoted freedom, equality, and justice.
    • Louis XVI: Ineffective leadership and failure to address crises.

Phases of the French Revolution

1. National Assembly (1789)

  • Formed by the Third Estate.
  • Tennis Court Oath: Pledged to write a new Constitution.

2. Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)

  • Abolished feudal privileges.
  • Issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man: Equality, liberty, property.
  • Created the first Constitution (1791):
    • Introduced constitutional monarchy.
    • Separated powers (legislative, executive, judicial).

3. Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)

  • Nobles (émigrés) fled France, conspired abroad.
  • Austria and Prussia declared war on France.
  • Jacobins demanded more radical reforms.

4. The National Convention (1792-1794)

  • Girondin National Convention (1792-1793):
    • Monarchy abolished; Republic proclaimed.
    • Execution of King Louis XVI (1793).
    • Formation of the First Coalition (European powers opposing France).
    • Catholic uprisings in Vendée.
    • The Revolution became radicalized.
  • Jacobin National Convention (1793-1794):
    • Robespierre seized power; Reign of Terror began.
    • Enemies of the Revolution were executed.
    • Economic crisis addressed by setting maximum prices for goods.
    • New Republican calendar created (based on seasons).
    • Fall of Robespierre and the Jacobins in 1794; moderate revolutionaries took over.

Napoleonic Era & Conservative Order (1799-1848)

1. Europe Under Napoleon (1799-1815)

  • The Consulate (1799-1804):
    • Napoleon became Consul for life in 1802.
    • Concordat with the Pope to stabilize relations with the Church.
    • Strengthened France politically and economically.
  • The Napoleonic Empire (1804-1815):
    • Napoleon crowned himself Emperor in 1804.
    • Expanded territory through military campaigns.
    • Major Defeats:
      • 1812: Failed invasion of Russia.
      • 1815: Defeated at the Battle of Waterloo.
    • Napoleon was exiled and monarchy restored in France.

2. The Conservative Order (1815-1848)

  • Congress of Vienna (1815):
    • Goal: To restore old monarchies and balance power in Europe.
    • Redrew borders to prevent French expansion.
  • Alliances to Maintain Order:
    • Holy Alliance: Prussia, Russia, Austria defended monarchies and religion.
    • Quadruple Alliance: Suppressed revolutions across Europe.
  • Effects of the Conservative Order:
    • Return of Louis XVIII to the French throne.
    • Stabilized Europe but suppressed liberal and nationalist movements.

Revolutions of the 19th Century

Revolutions of 1820

  • Spain:
    • Uprising led by Colonel Riego.
    • Demand: Reinstatement of the liberal constitution.
    • Result: Suppressed by foreign intervention.
  • Italy:
    • Uprisings in Naples and Piedmont.
    • Goal: Independence from Austria and constitutional reforms.
    • Result: Suppressed by Austrian forces.
  • Greece:
    • Started in 1821, seeking independence from the Ottoman Empire.
    • Achieved independence by 1829.

Revolutions of 1830

  • France:
    • Goal: Overthrow of the absolutist King Charles X.
    • Result: Creation of a constitutional monarchy under Louis Philippe (July Monarchy).
  • Belgium:
    • Broke away from the Netherlands.
    • Result: Independence declared in 1831.
  • Poland:
    • Uprising against Russian rule.
    • Result: Suppressed and failed.

Revolutions of 1848

  • General Characteristics:
    • Main Demands: Workers’ rights (wages, working hours), universal suffrage, liberal constitutions.
    • Largest wave of 19th-century revolutions.
  • France:
    • Overthrow of Louis Philippe in February 1848.
    • Established the Second Republic.
    • Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte was elected president, later declared himself Emperor (1852).
  • Other European Regions:
    • Spread to German, Austrian, and Italian states.
    • Liberal and nationalist ideas were widespread.
    • Outcome: Most revolutions failed; monarchies regained power.

Outcomes and Legacy of the Revolutions

  • Liberalism:
    • Some successes in establishing constitutions and freedoms.
    • Key changes: France extended the right to vote.
  • Failures:
    • Nationalist goals often went unfulfilled due to internal divisions and lack of coordination.
    • Many constitutions were abolished or ignored.

Visual Examples

  • Key Paintings:
    • Fighting outside Paris City Hall (1830).
    • Delacroix’s The Massacre at Chios (symbol of Greek War of Independence).

Nationalism & Unification in 19th-Century Europe

Types of Nationalism

  • Divisive Nationalism:
    • Called for independence from larger empires (e.g., Austro-Hungarian).
    • Examples: Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania.
  • Unifying Nationalism:
    • Promoted unity of fragmented territories into single states.
    • Examples: Germany, Italy, and Poland (unsuccessful until 20th century).

The Unification of Italy

  • Key Points:
    • Italy was divided into small states and ruled by foreign powers.
    • The Kingdom of Piedmont spearheaded unification.
    • Key Figures:
      • Victor Emmanuel II (King of Piedmont)
      • Giuseppe Garibaldi (Revolutionary leader of “Red Shirts”)
      • Camillo di Cavour (Prime Minister of Piedmont)
  • Stages of Unification:
    • 1859: Cavour secured French support and annexed Lombardy.
    • 1860: Garibaldi captured Naples and Sicily.
    • 1861: Victor Emmanuel became King of Italy.
    • 1866: Italy gained Venetia.
    • 1870: Rome was occupied and became the capital of Italy.

The Unification of Germany

  • Key Points:
    • German territory was divided into 39 states after 1815.
    • Zollverein (customs union) fostered economic unity.
    • Key Figures:
      • Otto von Bismarck (Prime Minister of Prussia)
      • Wilhelm I (King of Prussia, later German Emperor)
  • Stages of Unification:
    • 1864: Prussia annexed Schleswig and Holstein (war against Denmark).
    • 1866: Defeated Austria; formed North German Confederation.
    • 1870–1871: Defeated France in the Franco-Prussian War.
    • Southern German states joined unification.
    • Proclamation of the Second Reich in 1871.
    • Wilhelm I became Emperor.