Machiavelli’s Political Philosophy: Power, Statecraft, and Human Nature
Ambition
Machiavelli views ambition as an inextinguishable passion, a driving force in human affairs. It intersects with fortune, shaping the external world. The crucial element is channeling this passion through the mechanism of the state, or ordine.
Political Science
Modern political science, according to Machiavelli, arises from observing contemporary events and studying historical institutions and policies. He draws upon his experience in public affairs and the study of ancient history. Political science, in his view, analyzes the struggle for power, the relationship between rulers and the governed, and the management of state affairs. It examines the state and political behavior as they exist in reality.
Double Standard
Central to Machiavellianism is the concept of a double standard of morality: one for the statesman and another for the private citizen. Rulers are judged by their success in maintaining and increasing power, while citizens are judged by the social impact of their actions. The ruler, as the creator of the state, operates outside the conventional bounds of law and morality. They may employ any means, including cruelty, treachery, or murder, if done intelligently and secretly to achieve their goals. This double standard is justified by the reason of state and contributes to its durability.
State
Machiavelli presents the state as the supreme creation of human intellect and virtue, a structured entity embodying ordine. The state is an end in itself, its primary goal being self-preservation. The security and welfare of the state supersede individual interests. Machiavelli’s innovative concept of the state emphasizes its structure as a power structure.
Fortune
Fortuna represents the unpredictable and uncontrollable forces that influence political action. Machiavelli views it as a natural force, equating it to the “condition of the times.”
Man
Machiavelli believes that human nature is constant and driven by passions such as ambition, impatience, envy, jealousy, revenge, the desire for security, and the pursuit of novelty. This inherently selfish nature forms the basis of his approach to practical politics.
Republic and Principality
While Machiavelli considers a republic the ideal form of government, he acknowledges that exceptional circumstances may necessitate a single ruler. In such cases, the principles outlined in The Prince become relevant.
Virtue
Virtù encompasses political skill, competence, effectiveness, military courage, determination, and the ability to gain social consent. It involves adapting to changing circumstances and seizing opportunities presented by fortune. In The Prince, virtù is characterized by the capacity to recognize opportunities (occasione) and anticipate changes in fortune to control them.
Livy
Titus Livius (59 BC – 17 AD), commonly known as Livy, was a renowned Roman historian from Patavium (modern Padua). He chronicled the history of Rome from its founding in his monumental work, Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Books from the Founding of the City), often referred to as “The Decades.”