Machiavelli: Political Philosophy and Statecraft
Machiavelli: Historical Background
Niccolò Machiavelli was born in Florence in 1469. At that time, the Italian peninsula was divided into many city-states, involving foreign powers such as France and Spain. Florence, ruled by the wealthy Medici family, was the intellectual center of Europe. Machiavelli participated in numerous diplomatic missions, and Cesare Borgia would serve as a model for his concept of “The Prince.”
Machiavelli’s Conception of the State
- Human Nature is Inherently Bad: While the Renaissance generally held an optimistic view of human nature, in contrast to thinkers like Luther, Machiavelli believed that human beings are inherently bad, selfish, and driven by self-interest. He believed the state was created to control and order human relations, mitigating the negative aspects of human nature.
- The Political Animal: Machiavelli believed that humans can only achieve fulfillment within a political community, where they become citizens and find justice and moral order.
- Subordination of Church to State: While acknowledging religion’s utility and necessity for humanity, Machiavelli believed it should be subordinate to political purposes. He diverged from the prevailing view that human life is primarily oriented towards salvation.
- The National State: Machiavelli saw the state as the political expression of a national community. To uphold the state, he considered it necessary to:
- Fight the power of the nobility, as they are motivated by self-interest, which only aligns with that of their peers.
- Establish sovereignty: There should be nothing above the state, and it must procure the means to be autonomous.
- Types of Government: Machiavelli believed the best form of government is a mixed government, modeled after the Roman Republic, which included consuls, senators, and tribunes of the plebs.
The Prince
The Prince is a work that outlines the techniques for acquiring and maintaining power. Power, in Machiavelli’s view, is an end in itself, unbound by moral or religious constraints. The qualities that allow a prince to achieve and hold power are *virtù* (skill, prowess) and *fortuna* (fortune, luck). Machiavelli believed that while part of our destiny is determined by fortune, *virtù* is where a leader’s skill intervenes, allowing them to navigate circumstances and make effective decisions. He uses the symbols of the lion and the fox to represent the necessary elements of a ruler: cunning like a fox and, when necessary, forceful like a lion.
Machiavelli Text Commentary
Theme: The necessity for a ruler to know what is best in every circumstance, because political action is only good if it is effective.
Main Ideas:
- To govern rationally and maintain power, one must understand how the governed *actually* live, not how they *should* live. A ruler must observe how people behave.
- Human nature is constant across all places and times. People are dominated by the same desires and passions. To solve present problems, one should consider the past.
- Because human nature is inherently bad, individuals will act selfishly. The moral principles that guide individual decisions are distinct from those that should guide the state. The state and its laws must assume that every human being will act on their evil inclinations.
Connections Between Ideas:
The application of experience to policy leads to the understanding of how the state should be organized for long-term stability, recognizing that every state eventually disappears.
Explanation:
For Machiavelli, the state is an autonomous entity whose purpose is its own survival and expansion. The use of force is accepted. The prince’s interest is identified with the interest of the state, whose actions are judged solely by their contribution to the state’s interest, defense, and welfare, without regard for the morality of their decisions. This “reason of state” is based on the principle that the ends justify the means. The prince must possess certain qualities, *virtù* and prudence, to ensure the success of his mission. Ultimately, the prince also needs *fortuna* (luck).
Relevance Today:
In modern democratic societies, the legal system enforces all laws as long as they are in effect. From a legal point of view, the rule of law is a guarantee against arbitrary power. However, even those in power must engage in calculations and strategies for optimal outcomes. It is also necessary to consider a principled ethical ideal, although it may be difficult to achieve.