Literary Terms and Movements: A Concise Overview
Johnsonese: Samuel Johnson’s Elaborate Style
Johnsonese is a term used to describe the highly elaborate and Latinized style of writing associated with Samuel Johnson (1709–1784), the famous English writer, lexicographer, and critic. This distinctive style is characterized by long, complex sentences, an extensive use of polysyllabic words derived from Latin, and a formal, almost grandiloquent tone. Johnson’s writing had a profound influence on English prose, and his preference for scholarly vocabulary and balanced sentence structures became both admired and criticized.
The term “Johnsonese” emerged as a way to describe this ornate, rhetorical style, which was prevalent in Johnson’s works such as A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), The Rambler essays, and The Lives of the Poets. His writing often employed antithesis, parallelism, and a dignified, authoritative voice, making it highly effective for moral and philosophical discussions. However, critics have argued that Johnsonese can be overly pompous and artificial, making it less accessible to general readers.
Despite such criticism, Johnson’s influence on English prose is undeniable. Many writers of the 18th and 19th centuries imitated his style, and his contributions to English lexicography and criticism remain significant. While modern writing favors conciseness and simplicity, Johnsonese is still recognized as a symbol of erudition and rhetorical power. Today, the term is sometimes used humorously or critically to describe unnecessarily complex or verbose writing.
James Joyce’s Ulysses: A Modernist Masterpiece
James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) is a landmark modernist novel, celebrated for its innovative narrative techniques and complex structure. It follows a single day, June 16, 1904, in the life of Leopold Bloom, an ordinary Jewish man living in Dublin, Ireland. The novel parallels the structure of Homer’s ancient epic The Odyssey, with Bloom representing Odysseus, Stephen Dedalus (a young writer and teacher) representing Telemachus, and Molly Bloom mirroring Penelope.
The narrative is fragmented, shifting between different characters’ perspectives, and uses stream-of-consciousness to explore their inner thoughts and emotions. Joyce’s intricate wordplay, allusions, and references to classical literature, philosophy, and contemporary events give the novel a dense and layered texture, making it challenging but also rewarding for readers.
Ulysses covers a wide range of themes, including identity, self-discovery, time, and the nature of consciousness. The novel also critiques Irish society, politics, and religion, while exploring universal human experiences, such as love, sexuality, and mortality. It is often regarded as a masterwork of modernist literature due to its bold experimentation with language and form.
Despite initial controversy over its explicit content, Ulysses became a defining work of the 20th century, influencing generations of writers and changing the course of literary history. Its complexity and innovative style have earned it a place as one of the greatest novels ever written.
Scandinavian Influence on the English Language
The Scandinavian influence on the English language is significant, especially during and after the Viking Age (8th to 11th centuries), when Norse-speaking Vikings from Scandinavia (modern-day Norway, Denmark, and Sweden) invaded and settled in parts of England. The interaction between Old English (the language of the Anglo-Saxons) and Old Norse (the language of the Vikings) led to lasting linguistic changes, enriching the English language in various ways.
One of the most noticeable effects of Scandinavian influence on English is the substantial number of vocabulary borrowings. Many everyday words in English today can trace their origins to Old Norse. Terms like “sky,” “egg,” “window,” “husband,” “law,” and “they” are of Norse origin.
The Vikings also contributed terms related to seafaring and trade, such as “ship,” “drake” (a type of ship), and “scalawag.” This influx of vocabulary expanded the lexicon of English, especially in areas relating to law, governance, and trade, as these were central to Viking culture and activities.
In addition to vocabulary, Scandinavian influence also impacted English grammar. Old Norse had a simpler grammatical structure compared to Old English, which had a more complex system of inflection. As Norse speakers and Anglo-Saxons interacted, Old English gradually simplified, particularly in the area of verb conjugation and noun declension.
For instance, the use of the plural forms “they,” “them,” and “their” was influenced by Old Norse. The loss of the “thou” form of address in English is also believed to have roots in the Viking Age, as Norse speakers commonly used the same singular “you” form for both informal and formal contexts.
Place names are another testament to the Scandinavian influence. In northern and eastern England, many place names end in “-by” (meaning “town” in Old Norse) or “-thorpe” (meaning “village”). Examples include “Grimsby,” “Whitby,” and “Scunthorpe.” These place names reflect the areas where Norse settlers had the most significant impact.
Furthermore, the linguistic blending between Old English and Old Norse facilitated the development of Middle English, which later evolved into Modern English. The co-existence of these languages contributed to the hybrid nature of English, making it a language with a rich vocabulary and simplified grammar compared to many other European languages.
Overall, the Scandinavian influence played a crucial role in shaping the English language, both in terms of vocabulary and structure, leaving an enduring legacy that is still evident today.
Malapropism: The Humorous Misuse of Words
Malapropism is a form of linguistic mistake where a person uses a word incorrectly, often by substituting it with a similar-sounding word that has a completely different meaning. This typically results in humorous or absurd expressions. The term “malapropism” derives from the character Mrs. Malaprop in Richard Sheridan’s 1775 play The Rivals. Mrs. Malaprop was known for her frequent misuse of words, creating comic situations.
For example, a person might say “She is the pineapple of politeness” instead of “pinnacle” or “He is the apple of my eye” when they actually mean “He is the apple of my eye.” Such errors often arise due to confusion between words that are phonetically similar but have very different meanings. While malapropisms may lead to laughter due to their absurdity, they can also reflect a lack of understanding of language or a person’s unfamiliarity with precise vocabulary.
Malapropism can occur in both spoken and written language and is most commonly seen in informal speech. Though it’s generally seen as a mistake, it’s often used intentionally in literature and comedy for its comedic effect. Famous literary figures like Shakespeare also used malapropisms to create humor and reveal character traits.
Despite its humorous nature, malapropism highlights the importance of understanding language nuances and the potential for communication breakdowns when words are used incorrectly.
Consonant Shift: Evolution of English Pronunciation
The Consonant Shift in English literature refers to the significant changes in the pronunciation of consonants in the English language, particularly in the transition from Old English (OE) to Middle English (ME) and beyond. These shifts mark important stages in the evolution of the English language and have had a profound impact on both spoken and written forms. A key feature of these shifts is that they contributed to the distinct differences between Old English and Modern English.
One of the most notable shifts is the Great Consonant Shift, which took place in several phases between the late Middle Ages and the early Modern English period. The shift primarily affected the sounds of consonants and played a central role in changing the phonetic landscape of English. Some examples of consonant shifts include the changes in the pronunciation of the following sounds:
- Voicing of consonants: In Old English, voiceless consonants like /f/, /s/, and /t/ were often pronounced more strongly. Over time, these sounds shifted to voiced counterparts. For example, the Old English word “fisc” (fish) changed in pronunciation, with the “f” sound eventually shifting to a “v” sound, leading to the Modern English word “fish.”
- The shift of velar consonants: A major consonant shift also affected the pronunciation of velar consonants (those produced in the throat, such as “k,” “g,” and “h”). In the transition from Old English to Middle English, sounds like /k/ often softened and became palatalized (e.g., the shift from “c” to “ch” or “k” to “sh”). This can be seen in the transformation of the Old English cyning (king) to the Middle English king.
- The change in dental consonants: Dental consonants like “th” (/θ/ and /ð/) began to shift over time. In Old English, there was a more distinct pronunciation of these sounds, but by Middle English, the pronunciation became softer, and many dialects began to simplify these sounds (for example, the pronunciation of “th” as “t” in some cases).
The impact of these consonant shifts on English literature is significant, as it led to changes in spelling, grammar, and syntax. Old English, a highly inflected language with complex consonant clusters, gradually gave way to the more simplified phonetic structure of Modern English. This also affected the rhyme schemes, meter, and overall structure of poetry. For example, many Old English words that once rhymed no longer had the same sound in Middle and Modern English poetry.
In conclusion, consonant shifts were integral in shaping the English language as it evolved. The changes in consonant sounds, particularly during the transition from Old English to Middle English, marked a significant linguistic shift that ultimately influenced the development of English literature, helping to define the unique character of the language.
The Canterbury Tales: A Medieval Masterpiece
The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the late 14th century, often considered one of the greatest works of English literature. The tales are presented as part of a storytelling contest among a group of pilgrims traveling to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket at Canterbury Cathedral. The pilgrims, who come from different walks of life, each tell a story to entertain and win a prize for the best tale.
The work consists of 24 stories written in Middle English, and these tales reflect the social, religious, and cultural dynamics of medieval England. Chaucer uses a frame narrative, with the pilgrims’ interactions providing insight into their characters and the society they inhabit.
The characters represent a broad spectrum of medieval society, including a knight, a miller, a pardoner, a prioress, and many others. Through their stories, Chaucer explores themes of love, betrayal, religion, greed, and social class.
The Canterbury Tales is notable for its vivid portrayal of medieval life, its use of humor, and its intricate exploration of human nature. Chaucer’s use of satire allows him to critique the corruption and hypocrisy he observed in both the clergy and the laity, making the work a rich commentary on medieval society. The text’s language, characterization, and thematic complexity have made it a landmark in the development of English literature and a cornerstone of Western literary tradition.
Elizabethan Sonneteers: Shaping English Poetry
The Elizabethan era (1558–1603) was a golden age for English poetry, particularly for the sonnet form, which was refined and popularized during this period. Inspired by the Italian poet Petrarch, Elizabethan sonneteers adapted the form to suit the English language, leading to the development of the English (Shakespearean) sonnet structure. Their contributions greatly influenced the evolution of English literature, both in poetic form and thematic depth.
Pioneers: Wyatt and Surrey
Though not from the Elizabethan era, Sir Thomas Wyatt (1503–1542) and Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1517–1547) were pioneers who introduced the sonnet to England in the early 16th century. Wyatt translated and imitated Petrarch’s sonnets, making them accessible to English poets. Surrey refined the structure, introducing blank verse and the Shakespearean sonnet form (three quatrains and a concluding couplet). Their innovations provided a foundation for later Elizabethan sonneteers.
Sir Philip Sidney
Sir Philip Sidney’s (1554–1586) Astrophel and Stella (1591) was the first great Elizabethan sonnet sequence, consisting of 108 sonnets and 11 songs. It explored themes of unrequited love and inner conflict, blending Renaissance ideals with deep personal emotion. Sidney’s influence extended beyond poetry; he helped shape English literary style by demonstrating how the sonnet could be used for introspection and philosophical inquiry.
Edmund Spenser
Edmund Spenser’s (1552–1599) Amoretti (1595), a sequence of 89 sonnets, celebrated his courtship and eventual marriage to Elizabeth Boyle. Unlike the conventional theme of unfulfilled love, Spenser’s sonnets focused on the triumph of love and marriage. He developed the Spenserian sonnet (abab bcbc cdcd ee), which introduced interlocking rhymes, enhancing musicality and fluidity. His work influenced later poets in both structure and thematic variety.
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare (1564–1616) perfected the English sonnet form, writing 154 sonnets that explored themes of love, time, beauty, and mortality. His works, particularly those addressing the “Fair Youth” and the “Dark Lady,” provided psychological depth, moving beyond mere courtly love to explore complex human emotions. His mastery of metaphor, wordplay, and imagery set a new standard for poetic excellence in English literature.
Conclusion
Elizabethan sonneteers transformed English poetry by refining the sonnet form, expanding its thematic scope, and elevating the language. Their innovations laid the groundwork for future poets and solidified the sonnet as a vital part of English literary tradition.
Pre-Romantic Poetry: Bridging Neoclassicism and Romanticism
Pre-Romantic poetry emerged in the mid-18th century as a bridge between the Neoclassical and Romantic movements. It retained some classical elements, such as form and structure, while incorporating new themes of emotion, nature, and individual experience. This period marked a shift from the intellectual restraint of Neoclassicism to the passionate and sentimental expression that later defined Romanticism. Below are the key characteristics of Pre-Romantic poetry:
Key Characteristics
- Emphasis on Emotion and Imagination
Unlike Neoclassical poetry, which prioritized reason and order, Pre-Romantic poets explored deep emotions, sentimental themes, and the power of imagination. Their works often depicted human suffering, melancholy, and personal introspection.
- Nature and the Sublime
Pre-Romantic poets viewed nature as a source of beauty, inspiration, and even divine presence. They often described landscapes, rural life, and the changing seasons with a sense of awe and admiration.
- Focus on the Common Man and Folk Traditions
This era saw an interest in the lives of ordinary people, rustic settings, and folk traditions. Poets drew inspiration from ballads, folklore, and medieval legends, moving away from classical subjects and aristocratic themes.
- Melancholy and Death
Many Pre-Romantic poets wrote about themes of death, decay, and the passage of time. Their poetry often conveyed a sense of nostalgia, loss, and the fleeting nature of human existence.
- Personal and Subjective Experience
Unlike the objective and impersonal tone of Neoclassicism, Pre-Romantic poetry became more personal and expressive. Poets explored their own emotions, dreams, and inner conflicts, setting the stage for Romantic introspection.
- Freedom of Expression and Metrical Experimentation
While still using structured forms, Pre-Romantic poets began experimenting with meter and verse, loosening the strict poetic conventions of the past. Their language was often more natural and less artificial than that of Neoclassical poets.
Major Pre-Romantic Poets
- Thomas Gray (1716–1771)
Gray is best known for his poem Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, which captures themes of mortality, the simple life, and unfulfilled potential. His work reflects a deep sense of melancholy and appreciation for rural life, characteristics that define Pre-Romantic poetry.
- William Blake (1757–1827)
Blake’s poetry, such as Songs of Innocence and Experience, showcases emotional depth, social criticism, and mystical themes. He blended visionary imagination with strong political and religious messages, making his work a precursor to Romanticism.
These poets laid the foundation for the Romantic movement, emphasizing emotion, nature, and individual experience in their works.
Look Back in Anger: The Angry Young Man in British Theatre
Look Back in Anger is a play written by John Osborne in 1956 that is widely regarded as one of the seminal works of modern British theatre. It marks the emergence of the “angry young man” genre, characterized by disillusioned and discontented working-class protagonists who express their frustrations with society. The play is set in a small flat in a British industrial town, where the central character, Jimmy Porter, lives with his wife, Alison, and their friend, Cliff.
Jimmy is an intelligent but angry young man, disillusioned with the complacency of the middle class and the world around him. He often directs his frustration toward Alison, whose passive nature contrasts sharply with his volatile personality. His anger stems from his sense of powerlessness, the loss of his father in World War II, and the bleak prospects for social change.
Alison, in contrast, is portrayed as more traditional and subdued, which leads to tension between them. The arrival of Alison’s friend, Helena, further complicates the dynamics, revealing emotional conflicts and the depth of the characters’ struggles.
The play explores themes of alienation, frustration, and generational conflict, focusing on the psychological complexities of its characters. Jimmy’s tirades and his destructive behavior symbolize the post-war disillusionment felt by many in Britain during the 1950s. Look Back in Anger represents a break from the more traditional plays of the time, focusing on the harsh realities of everyday life and the emotional turbulence that accompanies it. The work brought a new sense of realism to the stage, challenging conventional theater and marking a turning point in British drama.
Victorian Novelists: Dickens and Hardy
The Victorian era (1837–1901) was a golden age of English literature, marked by the rise of the novel as a dominant literary form. Two of the most influential novelists of this period were Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy, whose works had a profound impact on literature and society.
Charles Dickens (1812–1870)
Charles Dickens is one of the most celebrated novelists of the Victorian era, known for his vivid storytelling, memorable characters, and sharp social criticism. His novels brought attention to the struggles of the poor and the injustices of Victorian society.
One of Dickens’ greatest contributions was his ability to combine entertainment with social commentary. Through novels such as Oliver Twist (1837–1839) and David Copperfield (1849–1850), he exposed the harsh realities of child labor, workhouses, and the struggles of the lower classes. Oliver Twist particularly highlighted the cruelty faced by orphans and the corruption within institutions meant to help them.
In A Tale of Two Cities (1859), Dickens explored themes of revolution, sacrifice, and redemption against the backdrop of the French Revolution. His most famous work, Great Expectations (1861), examined themes of ambition, class struggle, and personal growth.
Dickens was also a master of character creation, producing iconic figures such as Ebenezer Scrooge (A Christmas Carol), Uriah Heep (David Copperfield), and Fagin (Oliver Twist). His use of humor, satire, and realism made his works not only engaging but also influential in bringing about social reforms.
Thomas Hardy (1840–1928)
Thomas Hardy was another significant Victorian novelist, known for his deep exploration of fate, rural life, and the struggle between tradition and modernity. His novels are often pessimistic, reflecting the hardships of rural England and the harsh realities of fate and destiny.
Hardy’s most notable contribution was his depiction of the decline of rural communities due to industrialization. In Tess of the d’Urbervilles (1891), he portrayed the tragic downfall of a young woman due to the moral hypocrisy of Victorian society. Jude the Obscure (1895) challenged traditional ideas about marriage, education, and social class.
Hardy’s works were deeply influenced by naturalism, emphasizing how individuals are shaped by their environment and circumstances. His novels also introduced elements of modernism, paving the way for 20th-century literature.
Conclusion
Both Dickens and Hardy made lasting contributions to English literature. Dickens used his novels to highlight social injustices, while Hardy explored the struggles of individuals against an indifferent world. Their works remain relevant, influencing writers and readers even today.
Restoration Comedy: Congreve and Etherege
Restoration Comedy of Manners flourished in late 17th-century England after the monarchy was restored in 1660. This genre, known for its witty dialogue, satirical portrayal of aristocratic society, and themes of love, marriage, and deception, was significantly shaped by playwrights like William Congreve and George Etherege.
William Congreve (1670–1729)
William Congreve is one of the most celebrated playwrights of Restoration Comedy. His works refined the Comedy of Manners, elevating it with sophisticated wit, complex characterization, and social satire. His most famous play, The Way of the World (1700), is considered the peak of Restoration Comedy.
The play features Mirabell and Millamant, whose witty courtship and negotiation of marriage reflect Congreve’s sharp commentary on love, marriage, and gender dynamics in aristocratic society. The famous “proviso scene” between the two lovers is particularly notable for showcasing the balance of power in relationships, a theme that was innovative for its time.
Congreve’s plays, including Love for Love (1695) and The Double Dealer (1693), are distinguished by their clever repartee and satirical portrayal of vanity and hypocrisy among the upper class. His use of irony and double entendre set a high standard for comedic dialogue.
Unlike some earlier Restoration comedies, which relied on crude humor, Congreve’s works introduced more refined wit and psychological depth to characters. His influence extended beyond the Restoration era, inspiring later playwrights like Oscar Wilde and Richard Brinsley Sheridan.
George Etherege (1636–1692)
Sir George Etherege was one of the earliest playwrights to shape the Comedy of Manners. His works introduced the archetype of the witty, charming, yet morally ambiguous gentleman—the rake. His most notable plays include The Man of Mode (1676), She Would If She Could (1668), and The Comical Revenge (1664).
The Man of Mode is considered a defining work of Restoration Comedy, featuring Dorimant, a rakish yet charismatic protagonist who engages in various romantic intrigues. The play satirizes the superficiality and excesses of London’s fashionable elite while celebrating the wit and charm of its characters. Etherege’s work laid the foundation for later playwrights, including Congreve, by establishing the stock characters of Restoration comedy: the rake, the coquette, and the fop.
Conclusion
Both Congreve and Etherege played vital roles in developing Restoration Comedy. Etherege pioneered the genre with his depiction of the libertine aristocrat, while Congreve refined it with sharp wit and complex social critique, ensuring its lasting influence on English drama.
Anglo-Saxon Poetry: Characteristics and Themes
Anglo-Saxon poetry, also known as Old English poetry, flourished between the 7th and 11th centuries in England before the Norman Conquest of 1066. This poetry was composed in Old English and was primarily transmitted orally before being written down by monks. Anglo-Saxon poetry reflects the cultural, historical, and religious values of the time and is characterized by distinct stylistic and thematic features.
One of the most notable features of Anglo-Saxon poetry is the use of alliteration. Instead of rhyme, Old English poetry relied on the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words within a line.
Each line was typically divided into two half-lines, separated by a caesura, and at least one stressed syllable in the first half-line would alliterate with a stressed syllable in the second half-line. This alliterative structure gave the poetry a musical and rhythmic quality, enhancing its oral performance.
Kennings were another defining characteristic. Kennings are metaphorical compound expressions used to describe objects or concepts in an imaginative way. For example, the sea is often referred to as the “whale-road,” and a sword may be called a “battle-light.” These poetic devices enriched the imagery and added depth to the language of Anglo-Saxon poetry.
Anglo-Saxon poetry also exhibited a strong emphasis on heroic and elegiac themes. Heroic poetry celebrated the feats of great warriors and reflected the values of loyalty, bravery, and honor.
Beowulf, the most famous Old English epic, exemplifies this tradition by recounting the heroic deeds of its titular protagonist in his battles against Grendel, Grendel’s mother, and the dragon. Elegiac poetry, on the other hand, focused on themes of loss, exile, and the transience of life. Poems such as The Wanderer and The Seafarer express a deep sense of melancholy and reflection on the passage of time.
Religious influences also permeated Anglo-Saxon poetry. With the Christianization of England in the 7th century, biblical themes and moral lessons became integral to the poetic tradition. Works such as Caedmon’s Hymn and The Dream of the Rood blend Christian imagery with traditional Germanic forms, illustrating the merging of pagan and Christian elements.
Lastly, Anglo-Saxon poetry often conveyed a sense of fatalism and the inevitability of death, reflecting the harsh realities of life in a warrior society. This somber worldview permeates much of the literature, emphasizing the fleeting nature of human existence and the importance of loyalty and courage in the face of mortality.