Linguistic Analysis: Word Structure and Classification
Fundamentals of Word Structure
The basic unit of language communication is the word, which is defined as a linguistic unit consisting of one or more monemes. A moneme (or morpheme) is the smallest part equipped with lexical or grammatical meaning that can divide a word. For example, the word billetero (wallet/billfold) has two monemes: billet (referring to the concept of “paper money”) and -ero (the suffix that provides the meaning of “container where something is stored”).
Monemes: Lexemes and Morphemes
Monemes, in turn, can be classified into two main types:
- Lexemes: These monemes contribute the core conceptual meaning of the word. They are the unchangeable part (the root) of a set of words within a lexical field.
- Morphemes: These monemes primarily serve a grammatical or relational function:
- Changing the meaning of the word (e.g., adding -er to farm).
- Providing grammatical information (e.g., gender, number, voice, person, tense).
- Linking words, such as determiners, prepositions, and conjunctions.
Dependent and Independent Morphemes
Morphemes can be further categorized based on their ability to stand alone:
- Dependent Morphemes: These cannot appear alone in speech; they must necessarily join a lexeme. They can be:
- Inflectional (or Desinential): Those that provide grammatical information (e.g., gender, number, and verbal endings).
- Derivational (or Affixes): Prefixes, suffixes, and interfixes that bind to the lexeme to change its meaning and form new words within a lexical family.
- Independent Morphemes: These can appear alone in speech, such as prepositions, conjunctions, and determiners. Their meaning is primarily grammatical, not conceptual.
Word Classification by Morphology
Words are classified based on their morphological structure:
Simple and Primitive Words
A) Simple Words: Consist of a single lexeme and do not contain derivational morphemes. They may, however, include inflectional morphemes. For example, container(s).
All simple words are also often primitive words, which are words that do not derive from any other word in the language. They can, however, give rise to others, forming a lexical family. In our example, the primitive word pot gives rise to planter, flower pots, etc.
Words of Complex Morphology
B) Words of Complex Morphology: This group consists of words that derive from one or more existing words. They can be:
Derived Words and Affixes
Derived Words: Consist of a single lexeme bound to one or more derivational morphemes, such as cavalry or prejudice. These derivational morphemes can be:
- Prefixes: When they precede the lexeme (e.g., hyperactive).
- Suffixes: When they follow the lexeme (e.g., farm-er).
- Interfixes: A segment without meaning whose only function is to unite the lexeme and the suffix (e.g., in Spanish, man-ec-ita).
Derived words can also include inflectional morphemes (e.g., little hand-s).
Note on Evaluative Derivatives: Evaluative suffixes (diminutive, augmentative, and derogatory) are often considered inflectional rather than derivational, as they change the speaker’s assessment of the referent, not the core meaning of the word itself. Thus, a word like girlie should be considered morphologically simple in this context.
Compound and Parasynthetic Words
- Compound Words: Those that consist of more than one lexeme but contain no derivational morphemes (though they may take inflectional morphemes). For example, mouth-street (side street).
- Parasynthetic Words: These words combine composition and derivation; they have more than one lexeme and at least one derivational morpheme. For example, par-acaid-ista (parachutist).
Some grammars also consider words parasynthetic if the lexeme is accompanied by both a prefix and a suffix, provided that the union of the stem and the suffix alone is not an independent word. For example, beggar (if the root + suffix does not form an existing word).
Other Lexical Formation Processes
Acronyms, Initialisms, and Clipping
New words are also formed through abbreviation and shortening:
- Initialisms (or Alphabetisms): New words formed using the initial letters of other words, often pronounced letter by letter. Example: FBI.
- Acronyms: Words formed using the initial letters or parts of other words, pronounced as a single word (e.g., NATO, PULEVA).
- Clipping (or Shortening): Frequently used words shortened for convenience, like cole (for college/school) or prof (for professional/professor).
Fixed Phrases and Idioms
C) Fixed Phrases: These are fixed and immutable lexical structures functionally equivalent to a single grammatical category, allowing for their classification:
- Nominal phrases (e.g., half orange)
- Verbal phrases (e.g., be required to take into account)
- Adjective phrases (e.g., guarded prognosis)
- Adverbial phrases (e.g., without rhyme or reason, in fits and starts)
- Prepositional phrases (e.g., about)
- Conjunctive phrases (e.g., as)
Closely related to fixed phrases are idioms, which are immutable phrases used in a figurative sense (e.g., be on the crest of the wave).